ChapterFour外文文献-大学课件-

Chapter

Four

Measurements

of

InternationalTradeFull

specialization

is

only

possible

when

completely

free

trade

ispermitted.

Unfortunately,

every

country

in

the

world

has

trade

barrwhich

are

designed

to

protect

its

economy

against

internationalmarket

forces.

These

restrictions

tend

to

reduce

world

trade.

Theydecrease

the

customer"s

freedom

of

choice

among

different

productsIn

addition,

they

encourage

domestic

production

in

areas

which

areeconomically

inefficient.

Such

restrictions

may

be

divided

into

tabarriers

and

non-tariff

barriers

(NTBs).I.

Tariffs

or

Customs

Duties1.

DefinitionTariffs

are

simply

taxes

imposed

by

the

government

of

acountry

on

products

when

they

cross

the

boundary

of

thecustoms

territory

for

the

purpose

of

either

protectingdomestic

industries

from

foreign

competition

or

collectirevenues

for

the

government.2.

Reasons

for

Trade

BarriersProtection

of

an

infant

industry.Protection

of

the

home

marketForeign

Exchange

Requirements.Capital

accumulation.Maintenance

of

Standard

of

living

and

real

wagesConservation

of

Natural

Resources.Reasons

for

Trade

Barriers

(Contd.).Industrialization

of

a

Developing

Nation.Maintenance

of

employment

and

reduction

of

unemployment.National

DefenseIncrease

of

business

size.Self-relianceRetaliation,

bargaining,

balance

of

trade,

etc.3.

Effects

of

tariffsPositive

effect

on

a

countryNegative

effects

or

side-effects1)

Positive

effect

on

a

countryIncreasingnational

financial

revenueProtection

of

domestic

marketBalancing

of

domestic

supply

and

demand

andregulatingthe

pricesBalancing

exports

and

import2)

Negative

effects

or

side-effectsBurdening

thedomestic

consumersProhibiting

and

affecting

the

domestic

technologicdevelopmentsDeteriorating

the

trade

relations

between

countrieHindering

the

development

of

the

international

trad4.

Classifications

of

tariffsTariffs

are

classified

on

the

basis

ofobjects

of

taxation,purposes

of

taxation,tariff-makers,special

treatment

and

measurements

of

tariffs.3)

On

tariff-makerAutonomous

tariff自主关税,国家关税Agreement

tariff4)

On

special

treatments

and

situationsImport

SurtaxesCounter-vailing

dutyAntidumping

dutiesPreferential

duties(特惠税)Generalized

System

of

Preference

(GSP)A.

Import

SurtaxesIt

refers

to

the

additional

tariffs

imposed

on

import

goobesides

the

customs

tariffs.

They

are

of

a

special

ortemporary

duties.Counter-vailing

dutyAntidumping

dutiesa.

Counter-vailing

dutyCounter-vailing

duties

may

be

imposed

upon

imports

into

the

countrwhen

a

government

or

a

private

party

is

directly

or

indirectlysubsidizing

the

manufacture,

production

and

importation

of

goodsimported,

or

likely

to

be

imported

into

the

country

and

thatimportation

injures,

threatens

with

injury,

or

retards

the

establiof

a

domestic

competing

industry.b.

Antidumping

dutiesIf

a

foreign

manufacturer

sells

goods

in

the

country

for

less

than

hsells

such

goods

in

his

domestic

market

and

even

at

the

price

lowerthan

their

cost,

and

if

these

sales

cause

or

threaten

to

cause

materinjury

to

the

country"s

industry

or

retard

the

establishment

of

sucindustry,

an

antidumping

duty

equal

to

the

amount

by

which

theforeign

market

value

exceeds

the

country"s

price

shall

be

imposedupon

that

product.B.Preferential

duties(特惠税)It

refers

to

preferential

reduction

and

exemption

of

impoduties

on

the

products

from

given

countries

or

regions.

Thpreferential

treatment

is

either

reciprocal

or

non-recipone.C.

Generalized

System

of

Preference

(GSP)In

1968,

at

the

second

UNCTAD

conference

of

the

United

Nations,

aresolution

was

finally

passed

and

came

into

effect

on

July

1,

1971.the

resolution,

the

28

developed

countries

endorsed

GSP

andpromised

to

grant

170

developing

countries

the

preferential

treatmof

tariff

reduction

or

exemption

on

their

exports

and

semi-manufactured

products.

The

preferential

treatment

must

begeneralized,

non-discriminative

and

non-reciprocal

one.5)On

Measurements

of

tariffs收税方法Specific

duties从量税Ad

valorem

duty

从价税A.Specific

duties从量税It

refers

to

duties

levied

at

the

rate

of

so

much

per

physunit

of

the

imported

product.3)Compound

or

mixed

duties复合税Compound

duties

are

a

combination

of

specific

and

advalorem

duties.5.Nominal

and

effective

tariff

rates名义关税率和有效关税率In

respect

of

the

effectiveness

of

tariff

protection,

thtwo

tariff

rates.

One

is

the

nominal

tariff

rate.

The

othethe

effective

tariff

rate.

The

former

refers

to

the

ratespublished

by

a

customs

administration

and

the

lattermeasures

the

actual

rate

of

protection

that

the

nominal

tarate

actually

exert

on

home

industry.The

nominal

tariff

ratesThe

nominal

tariff

rates

refer

to

the

rates

published

by

a

customsadministrationThe

effective

tariff

ratesThe

effective

tariff

rate

measures

the

actual

rate

of

prothat

the

nominal

tariff

rate

actually

exert

on

home

indusThe

formula

measuring the

effective

protection

ratet

-

arf

=1

-

aWhere

f=

the

effective

protection

ratet=

the

nominal

tariff

rate

on

the

final

producta=

the

ratio

of

the

value

of

the

imported

inputto

the

value

of

the

final

productr=

the

nominal

tariff

rate

on

the

imported

inputHere,

we

will

illustrate

this

with

the

following

example

of

T.V.

set

assembly

in

ChinaWe

assume

that

t=

100%,

a=

50%,

r=

0%

(i.e.

the

imported

inputis

allowed

in

duty

free).Then:100%-(50%)(0%)

1-(0.5)(0)f

===

2

X100%

=

200%1-

50% 1-

0.5In

case

of

the

higher

rate

on

the

imported

input

than

the

finalproduct=

0.8

X100%=

80%t=

100%,

a=

50%,

r=

120%1-(0.5)(1.2) 1-0.6f

=

=1-0.5

0.5ConclusionWhen

the

nominal

tariff

rate

on

the

final

product

is

higher

than

thathe

imported

input,

the

effective

protection

rate

will

be

higher

thnominal

tariff

rate,

whereas,

the

nominal

tariff

rate

on

the

finalproduct

is

lower

than

that

on

the

imported

input,

the

effectiveprotection

rate

is

lower

that

the

nominal

tariff

rate

on

the

final

pAs

a

result.

the

countries

in

the

world

usually

imposes

the

low

dutand

even

duty

free

on

the

imported

input

and

higher

duties

on

thefinal

products

imported.Illustrate

why

a

nation

usually

impose

the

lower

tariff

on

the

imported

input

thfinal

products

with

Location

Theory.50%

of

the

domestic

input

is

the

location

advantage.

They

cless

in

final

production.

50%

of

the

foreign

input

is

necesswhich

are

not

available

in

domestic

market

or

cheaper

than

tsold

in

the

domestic.

The

imposition

of

the

higher

tariff

onwill

increase

the

total

costII

Non-tariff

Barriers

(NTBs)MeasurementsDefinitionAny

restrictive

measurements

of

import

and

export

except

for

customstariffs

are

generally

called

non-tariff

barriers.

There

are

many

kinon-tariff

barriers,

which

are

more

flexible,

more

effective,

lessand

more

discriminative

than

tariffs.

They,

therefore,

are

widely

uthe

government

to

protect

its

infant

industry

from

the

foreigncompetitions.CategoriesQuotasImport

quotas

system"Voluntary"

export

quotas

"Import

licence

systemForeign

exchange

controlState

Monopoly

of

Imports

and

ExportsLocal

content

requirements国产化要求Import

deposit

scheme

or

advanced

depositGovernment

procurement

policy

of

discriminationCommodity

test

and

examination

(inspection)

and

technicalstandardsCustoms

valuation1)

QuotasA

quota,

in

international

trade,

is

a

type

of

trade

barrie

nations

place

on

the

physical

amount

of

imports

or

exports

specific

kinds

of

goods.

A

quota

differs

from

a

tariff,

wh

is

a

schedule

of

taxes

or

duties

placed

on

imports

that

doe

not

categorically

place

limitation

on

the

amount

of

the

go

that

may

be

imported.Why

does

the

GATT

treat

Tariffs

and

Quotas

differently?—Tariffs

are

more

transparent—Tariffs

capture

for

a

government

the

monopoly

profits

they

createTariffs

do

not

need

licensing

to

administer—Tariffs

do

not

require

the

expenditure

of

government

funds(as

opposed

to

subsidies,

State

trading

enterprise

and

even

quotas)—Tariff

reduction

is

easy

to

negotiate

than

removal

of

other

methods

of

import

reTariffs

offer

only

limited

protectionQuotas

(by

contrast

with

Tariffs)

—Quotas

are

not

transparentQuotas

require

a

licensing

system

to

administer—Quotas

conceal

costs—Quotas

operate

in

such

a

way

as

to

provide

extra

profits

to

those

holdinga

share

of

the

quota

(both

domestic

and

foreign

parties)The

absolute

quotas

and tariff

quotas.The

absolute

quotas

is

that

the

government

set

the

maximal

amountof

import

goods

in

physical

or

value

terms.

When

the

maximal

quotasis

fully

distributed,

no

more

imports

of

the

commodity

are

allowed.The

quotas

are

administered

by

the

Customs

Service

on

a

first-come,first-serve

basis.This

restriction

allows

a

specified

number

of

goods

to

be

importedone

tariff

rate

(the

within-quota

rate),

while

any

imports

above

thlevel

face

a

higher

tariff

rate

(the

over-quota

rate).The

global

quotas

and

countries

quotasOn

a

country

or

global

basis

without

reference

to

countries

oforigin,

there

are

global

quotas

and

countries

quotas.The

global

ones

apply

to

all

the

countries

and

regions

in

the

world.The

countries"

quotas

is

that

the

set

quotas

be

distributed

to

a

couor

region

within

the

total

quotas.

In

order

to

identify

the

importedgoods

from

the

quotas-receiving

country,

the

importer

must

providethe

credit

of

origin

for

the

imported

products.B.

"Voluntary"

export

quotas

"It

refers

to

the

exporting

quotas

negotiated

on

a

so-called

voluntabasis.

Sometimes,

exporting

countries

do

not

readily

agree

to

limittheir

sales.

Thus,

the

"voluntary"

label

generally

means

that

theimporting

country

has

threatened

to

impose

even

worse

restrictionsvoluntary

cooperation

is

not

forthcoming.Some

voluntary

export

quotas

are

really

voluntary.

For

example,OPEC

countries

agree

to

restrict

their

exporting

oil

to

certain

amoto

keep

up

the

price

of

oil

in

the

world

market.2)

Import

licence

systemIt

refers

to

a

system

in

which

if

the

goods

are

subject

toimport

licensing

restrictions,a

valid

import

licence

shobtained

by

the

importer,usually

from

the

import

licensidepartment

of

a

country.The

import

licences

consist

of

thopen

or

general

licence公开(一般)许可证and

specificlicence特种许可证.the

open

or

general

licenceThe

open

or

general

licence

will

apply

to

all

the

countrieand

regions

in

the

world.For

exporting

the

goods

subject

to

the

open

licence,

theimporter

is

allowed

to

import

them

as

long

as

he

applies

fothe

open

licence.The

specific

licenceThe

specific

licence

is

imposed

on

the

specific

goods

bygovernment

of

a

country.

The

importer

should

apply

to

thegovernment

agencies

concerned

for

importing.

He

is

notallowed

to

import

the

goods

unless

he

gets

the

permission.3)Foreign

exchange

control外汇管制It

means

official

control

in

the

foreign

exchange

dealingcountry.

The

control

may

extend

over

a

wide

area,

coveringthe

import

and

export

of

goods

and

services,

remittancesfrom

the

country,

inflow

and

outflow

of

capital,

rate

ofexchange,

method

of

payment,

maintenance

of

balance

inforeign

centres,

acquisition

and

holding

of

foreign

secuetc.The

method

used

for

exchange

controlcontrol

of

the

exchange

rate,fixing

the

currencies

in

which

payments

for

imports

andexports

should

be

made

and

receivedto

and

from

specifiedcountries,

andcontrol

of

the

use

of

foreign

exchange

in

import

and

expThe

direct

monopoly

and

indirect

monopolyThe

direct

monopoly

means

the

government

directly

engagesin

import

and

export

of

specific

products.the

Indirect

monopoly

refers

that

the

government

empowerthe

domestic

companies

or

enterprises

to

import

and

exporthe

specified

goods.5)Localcontent

requirements国产化要求The

local

content

requirements

stipulate

the

percentageproduct"s

total

value

that

must

be

produced

domesticallythat

product

to

be

sold

domestically.6)Import

deposit

scheme

or

advanced

deposit进口押金制It

is

also

called

prior

import

deposit,

which

require

theimporter

to

make

a

deposit

with

the

bank

of

the

governmentwhich

may

amount

to

the

certain

percentage

of

the

totalvalue

of

importing

goods.

The

deposit

will

be

made

withoutany

interests.

In

this

way

it

lay

the

heavy

burden

on

theimporters

and

as

a

result,

restrict

imports.7)

Government

procurement

policy

of

discriminationThe

government

of

a

country

stipulates

through

thelegislation

that

the

domestic

products

should

be

given

apriority

to

in

procurement

and

expenditure

of

the

governmadministration.1.

Measures

related

to

the

WTO

Agreement

on

Government

ProcurementCurrent

status

of

the

number

of

countries

and

regions

participating

in

the

WTO

AgreemenGovernment

Procurement(Note)

Parties

to

the

Agreement

on

Government

Procurement

(as

of

31

March

2003)

Japan,

United

StatCanada,

European

Community

(EC),

United

Kingdom,

France,

Germany,

Italy,

Netherlands,

Netherlanrespect

to

Aruba,

Spain,

Portugal,

Greece,

Finland,

Sweden,

Denmark,

Austria,

Belgium,

Iceland,Luxembourg,

Norway,

Switzerland,

Israel,

Korea,

Hong

Kong

China,

Liechtenstein,

SingaporeThe

Working

Group

on

Transparency

in

Government

Procurement

(ReferenceMaterials

III-2In

December

1996,

the

first

Ministerial

Conference

since

the

founding

of

the

World

Trade

Organizawas

held

in

Singapore,

with

ministers

and

officials

from

127

countries

participating.

At

this

firsConference,

it

was

decided

to

establish

a

Working

Group

on

Transparency

in

Government

Procurementresponse

to

this,

since

the

first

meeting

was

held

in

May

1997,

further

formal

meetings,

a

number

omeetings

and

friends

meetings

have

taken

place.The

Working

Group

on

Transparency

in

Government

Procuremena

forum

to

carry

out

studies

on

transparency

in

governmentprocurement

in

a

way

designed

to

be

conducive

to

the

policiecountry,

and

since

it

is

positioned

to

specify

elements

thatcountry

could

agree

to

on

government

procurement,

countriesthan

the

signatory

nations

(as

mentioned

above)

to

the

WTOAgreement

on

Government

Procurement

have

also

become

memberof

the

Working

Group.8)

Commodity

test

and

examination

(inspection)

and

technicalstandardsIn

order

to

restrict

imports

a

country

imposes

a

differencomplex

standards

on

the

imported

goods.

Standardsdisparity

allows

the

application

of

different

health,

saand

quality

standards

for

similar

goods

from

differentcountries.The

standardsinspective

standardstechnical

standards

and

repairing

servicespacking

regulationshealth

and

sanitary

regulationssafety

requirementstrade

mark

or

labeling9)

Customs

valuationAgreement

on

Implementation

of

Article

VII

of

GATTTransaction

valueTransaction

value

of

identical

goodsTransaction

value

of

similar

goodsComputed

ValueReasonable

Means3.

Characteristics

of

non-tariff

barriorsMore

flexibleMore

effectiveMore

concealed

and

discriminativeIII.

Measurements

for

encouraging

exportExport

credit出口信贷Export

Subsidies出口补贴Export

credit

guarantee出口信贷国家担保制Export

of

capitalDumpingExchange

dumpingReserved

percentage

of

exchange外汇留成1.

Export

creditIt

refers

that

the

state

bank

provides

the

credit

to

the

eor

overseas

importer

in

order

to

encourage

export

andenhance

competitiveness

of

exporting

goods.

There

are

twkinds

of

the

export

credit:sellers

credit

and

buyers

credit.Sellers

creditSellers

credit

is

the

credit

provided

by

the

bank

or

otherfinancial

institution

in

the

exporting

country

to

the

expthus

enabling

him

to

give

his

buyer

postshipment

finance运后资金融通or

delayed

payment,usually

in

credit

termsfrom

3

to

5

years.Buyers

creditBuyers

credit

is

a

long-term

export

credit

provided

by

thbank

or

other

financial

institution

in

exporting

countrydirectly

to

the

overseas

buyer

of

heavy

capital

equipmentproject,

etc.,

thus

enabling

the

buyer

to

pay

the

suppliercash

basis.

The

term

of

loan

is

likely

to

exceed

ten

years.2.

Export

Subsidies出口补贴The

export

subsidies

are

devices

provided

by

the

governmeor

trade

organization

in

exporting

country

to

the

exporteforms

of

cash

and

other

favourable

financial

treatments

sto

strengthen

the

competitiveness

of

its

products

in

theoverseas

market.Direct

subsidies

and

Indirect

subsidies1)

Direct

subsidiesThis

means

that

a

government

may

make

outright

cashpayment

to

a

domestic

exporter

after

the

sales

have

beencompleted.2)

Indirect

subsidiesThat

implies

that

the

exporter

may

be

granted

specialprivileges,including

tax

exemption

or

reduction,speciainsurance

arrangements,export

rebate出口退税,provisioof

capital

at

favored

rates,etc.3.

Export

credit

guarantee出口信贷国家担保制It

refers

to

the

system

in

which

the

special

financialinstitutions

set

up

by

the

government

to

provide

the

crediguarantee

to

the

export

firms

or

bank.

When

they

are

subjeto

risk

against

their

credit

to

the

overseas

importer,

forexample,

the

refusal

of

return

by

the

importer,

the

institought

to

pay

for

the

loss.Export

of

capitalIt

means

that

the

government

or

multinational

corporations

of

a

countprovide

the

financial

aids

or

credit

to

the

foreign

countries

or

regCapital

export

usually

manifests

itself

in

three

main

ways:Governmental

export

of

capitalPrivate

export

of

capitalCredit

of

international

financial

organizationsa.

Governmental

export

of

capitalIt

refers

that

a

government

of

a

country

export

the

capital

throughfinancial

aid.

The

aid

will

be

"tied

loan",

which

means

the

aidedcountries

are

required

to

buy

the

specified

products

by

the

aidingcountry.Tied

Aid

Credit

-

Tied

aid

credit

refer