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BiographyofHomeristhemanwho,accordingBiographyofHomeristhemanwho,accordingtolegend,wrotethetwogreatepicsofGreekhistory:theIliad(thetaleoftheTrojanWar)andtheOdyssey(aboutthetravelsofOdysseus).BothbooksareconsideredlandmarksinhumanliteratureandHomeristhereforeoftencitedasthestartingpointofWesternliteraryandhistoricaltradition.ThedetailsofHomer'slifeareamystery;somescholarsbelievethatnosuchmaneverexisted,andthattheworkscreditedtohimwereactuallytoldandgatheredbymanypeopleovermanycenturies.OtherstoriesgivevariousbirthplacesandagesforHomerandsuggesthewasawanderingpoetorminstrel.Homerisusuallysaidtohavebeenblind,apointonwhichnearlyallthelegendsBiographyofAristotleisoneofthe"bigthree"inancientGreekphilosophy,alongwithPlatoandSocrates.(SocratestaughtPlato,whointurninstructedAristotle.)Aristotlespentnearly20yearsatPlato'sAcademy,firstasastudentandthenasateacher.AfterPlato'sdeathhetravelledwidelyandeducatedafamouspupil,AlexandertheGreat,theMacedonianwhonearlyconqueredtheworld.LaterAristotlebeganhisownschoolinAthens,knownastheLyceum.Aristotleisknownforhiscarefullydetailedobservationsaboutnatureandthephysicalworld,whichlaidthegroundworkforthemodernstudyofbiology.AmonghisworksarethetextsPhysics,Metaphysics,RhetoricandEthics.BiographyofArchmedes(ar-ke-me'-deez),arenownedmathematician.Hisastonishingskillinmechanicswassuchthatsomeofthegreatestrealtriumphsoftheliftingofweightsbymeansofpulleysandtheendlessscrewareamongthem.ARomanhistoriancelebratesthewarlikeenginesproducedbyskillArchimedes.HismindeverfruitfulofextraordinarywhenSyracusewasbesiegedbyMarcellus,heconstructedaburning-glassonascaleofsuchmagnitudethatbymeansofittheenemy'sfleetwasfired.Eventually,thecitybeingtaken,hewasfoundamongtheslain.BiographyAnexiledandwanderingfigureduringhiswritinglifetime,DanteisnowconsideredItaly'sgreatestpoet--somuchaliterarygiantthatheisgenerallyknownbyhisfirstnamealone.TheDivineComedy,byfarhismostfamouswork,isthestoryofajourneythroughHell,PurgatoryandfinallyParadise.(ThejourneythroughHellisoftenreferredtoindependentlyas"Dante'sInferno.")InthepoemthefirsttwostagesareguidedbytheRomanpoetVirgil,andthefinalvisittoParadiseisledbyawomannamedBeatrice--agirlDantemetbrieflywhenhewasnineandwhomheidolizedtherestofhislife.TheDivineComedyisthesourceofmanyfamousclassicalimages,inspiringworksbyWilliamBlake2others,andisfamousforitsinscriptionontheothers,andisfamousforitsinscriptiononthegatesofHell:"Allhopeabandon,yewhoenterArc(1412-AherooftheHundredYearsWar,JoanofArcremainsaFrenchnationalherosixcenturieslater.AsateenagersheheardvoicesfromonhighurginghertosaveFrancefromEnglishdomination.Despitebeingayoungwoman,shewasplacedattheheadofanarmy;sheattackedtheEnglishandforcedthemtoretreatfromOrléans.LatershewascapturedbytheEnglish,triedforheresy,andburnedatthestake.In1920shewascanonizedbytheChristopherChristopherColumbuswasbornin1451Calvi(Corsica),northwestoftheisland,200kmfromAjaccio.Hewastheoldestoffivechildren.Asachild,hehelpedhisfatherasaweaver.Healwayslikedthesea.Genoawasanimportantseaport.Thereisnodoubtthatasachildhecaughtridesonships.Hehadlittleschoolingbutwasageniuswiththesea.Hisplanwasnottoprovethattheworldwasflat,butitwastofindashortcuttotheSpiceIslands.Hewantedtoestablishacitytherefortrade,seaports,andmuchmore.WhenhegrewintoamanhewasinterestedinsailingtoAsiabygoingwest.FirsthewenttothekingofItalyandpresentedhisideabeforehim.Italywasn'tlookingforawaytoAsia,theywerestillrecievingrichesfromtheiroldtraderoutes.HisthreeshipsweretheSantaMaria,theNina,andOne-TankTrip:Columbus,PensacolaNewsJournal-FOUNDED/ESTABLISHED:1828.HISTORY:Thiscity,namedChristopherColumbus,islocatedonabluffoverlookingtheChattahoocheeRiver.ItisthethirdlargestcityinGeorgiaandthefourthlargestmetropolitanareainthestate.Coca-Cola...LittleLeagueteamhasfullsupportfromPhiladelphiaEnquirer-COLUMBUS,Ga.-Georgiaschoolsstudentsusuallyareallowednomorefivenon-excusedabsencesbeforetheyareconsideredtruant.TheboysofsummerfromColumbuswhoarestillswingingawayintheLittleLeagueWorldSerieshavebeengiventhe...City:KnightsfallinToledoBlade-COLUMBUS-St.FrancisdeSalesoutgainedColumbusDeSalesby187yards,DeSales'specialteamsweresuperiorinknockingofftheKnights24-21lastnightin3season-opener.AfterKnightsquarterbackMattseason-opener.AfterKnightsquarterbackMattMeinerthitMikeJesionowskiforasixLeonardodaLeonardodaVinciisbestrememberedasthepainteroftheMonaLisa(1503-1506)andTheLastSupper(1495).Buthe'salmostequallyfamousforhisastonishingmultiplicityoftalents:hedabbledinarchitecture,sculpture,engineering,geology,hydraulicsandthemilitaryarts,allwithsuccess,andinhissparetimedoodledparachutesandflyingmachinesthatresembledinventionsofthe19thand20thcenturies.Hemadedetaileddrawingsofhumananatomywhicharestillhighlyregardedtoday.Leonardoalsowasquirkyenoughtowritenotebookentriesinmirror(backwards)script,atrickwhichkeptmanyofhisobservationsfrombeingwidelyknownuntildecadesafterhisNicolasNicolasCopernicuswasbornintoawell-to-dofamily,andafterhisfatherdiedin1483hewasputundertheguardianshipofhisuncle,abishopofWarmia(Poland).HewenttouniversityinKrakowandspentadecadeinItaly,studyinglawandmathematics.AcanonofthecathedralatFrombork,Copernicuscarriedoutadministrativedutiesand,fromhishouse,observedthestarsandplanets.Foryearsheworkedonhistheorythattheplanetsinoursolarsystemrevolvedaroundthesun(PtolemyofancientGreecehadexplainedthattheuniversewasaclosedsystemrevolvingaroundtheearth,andtheCatholicchurchconcurred).Hesitanttopublishhisworkforfearofbeingchargedwithheresy,Copernicussummarizeditin1530andcirculateditamongEurope'sscholars,whereitwasgreetedwithenthusiasm.Hiswork,titledDerevolutionibusorbiumcoelestiumwasfinallypublishedin1543,apparentlyjustafewbeforeheSocratesiscreditedwithlayingthefoundationforWesternphilosophicalthought.His"SocraticMethod"involvedaskingprobingquestionsinagive-and-takewhichwouldeventuallyleadtothetruth.Socrates'siconoclasticattitudedidn'tsitwellwitheveryone,andatage70hewaschargedwithheresyandcorruptionoflocalyouth.Convicted,hecarriedoutthedeathsentencebydrinkinghemlock,becomingoneofhistory'searliestmartyrsofconscience.Socrates'smostfamouspupilwasPlato,whointurninstructedthephilosopher4AlsoKnownAs:KongFu-ConfuciusAlsoKnownAs:KongFu-Confuciuswasateacher,scholarandminorpoliticalfigure,whosecommentaryonChineseliteraryclassicsdevelopedintoapragmaticphilosophyfordailylife.Notstrictlyreligious,histeachingswereautilitarianapproachtosocialharmonyandthemoralobligationsbetweenindividualsandsocialBiographyofMichelangeloPerhapsthegreatestinfluenceonwesternartinthelastfivecenturies,MichelangelowasanItaliansculptor,architect,painterandpoetintheperiodknownastheHighRenaissance.HisgreatworkswerealmostentirelyintheserviceoftheCatholicChurch,andincludeahugestatueoftheBiblicalheroDavid(over14feettall)inFlorence,sculptedbetween1501and1504,andtheceilingoftheSistineChapelinRome(commissionedbyPopeJuliusII),paintedbetween1508and1512.After1519Michelangelowasincreasinglyactiveinarchitecture;hedesignedthedomeofSt.Peter'sBasilica,completedafterhisdeath.AlongwithcontemporariesLeonardodaVinciandRaphael,heisconsideredoneofthegreatmastersofEuropeanFerdinandPortuguesename:FernaodeMagellanwasborninPortugal,butitwasundertheSpanishflagthathesailedin1519withtheintentionofreachingtheSpiceIslandsbysailingwestaroundSouthAmerica.AftermuchhardshiphesucceededinreachingandthensailingacrossthePacificOcean.SoonthereafterhewaskilledwhiletryingtosubduethenativesonwhatisnowtheislandofMactaninthePhilippines.Afterstillmorehardships,oneofhisoriginalfiveships,Victoria,eventuallymadeitbacktoSpain.ThoughMagellandidn'tcompletetheentirecircumnavigation,astheexpedition'sleaderheisusuallycreditedwithbeingthefirstmantocirclethe5MigueldeFullname:MigueldeFullname:MigueldeCervantesCervanteswrotetheepicsatireDonQuixote,regardedasthefirsttruemodernnovel.LittleisknownofCervantes'searlylife;at23heenlistedintheSpanishmilitiaandthenfoughtagainsttheTurksinthebattleofLepanto(1571)whereagunshotwoundpermanentlycrippledhislefthand.HespentfourmoreyearsatseaandthenanotherfiveasaslaveafterbeingcapturedbyBarbarypirates.Ransomedbyhisfamily,hereturnedtoMadridbuthisdisabilityhamperedhim;itwasindebtor'sprisonthathebegantowriteDonQuixote.Thetitlecharacter,adreamymiddle-agednobleman,setsoutthroughSpainonamakeshiftquesttofightinjusticethroughactsofchivalry.Cervanteswrotemanyotherworks,includingpoemsandplays,butnonehadtheimpactorpopularityofhis1564?616,Englishdramatistandpoet,b.Stratford-on-Avon.Heisconsideredthegreatestplaywrightwhoeverlived.Hisfather,JohnShakespeare,wassuccessfulintheleatherbusinessduringShakespeare'searlychildhoodbutlatermetwithfinancialdifficulties.Duringhisprosperousyearshisfatherwasalsoinvolvedinmunicipalaffairs,holdingtheofficesofaldermanandbailiffduringthe1560s.WhilelittleisknownofShakespeare'sboyhood,heprobablyattendedthegrammarschoolinStratford,wherehewouldhavebeeneducatedintheclassics,particularlyLatingrammarandliterature.WhatevertheveracityofBenJonson'sfamouscommentthatShakespearehad"smallLatine,andlessGreeke,"muchofhisworkclearlydependsonaknowledgeofRomancomedy,ancienthistory,andclassicalmythology.In1582ShakespearemarriedAnneHathaway,eightyearshisseniorandpregnantatthetimeofthemarriage.Theyhadthreechildren:Susanna,bornin1583,andtwins,HamnetandJudith,bornin1585.NothingisknownoftheperiodbetweenthebirthofthetwinsandShakespeare'semergenceasaplaywrightinLondon(c.1592).However,varioussuggestionshavebeenmaderegardingthistime,includingthosethathefledStratfordtoavoidprosecutionforstealingdeer,thathejoinedagroupoftravelingplayers,andthathewasacountryschoolteacher.Thelastsuggestionisgivensomecredencebytheacademicstyleofhisearlyplays;TheComedyofErrors,forexample,isanadaptationoftwoplaysbyPlautus.In1594ShakespearebecameanactorandplaywrightfortheLordChamberlain'sMen,thecompanythatlaterbecametheKing'sMenunderJamesI.UntiltheendofhisLondoncareerShakespeareremainedwiththecompany;itisthoughtthatasanactorheplayedoldmen'sroles,suchastheghostinHamletandOldAdaminAsYouLikeIt.In1596heobtaineda6ofarms,andby1597hewasprosperousenoughtobuyNewPlaceinStratford,whichlaterwasthehomeofhisretirementyears.In1599hebecameapartnerintheownershipoftheGlobetheatre,andin1608hewaspartowneroftheBlackfriarstheatre.ShakespeareretiredandreturnedtoStratfordc.1613.Heundoubtedlyenjoyedacomfortablelivingthroughouthiscareerandinretirement,althoughhewasneverawealthyman.Theofarms,andby1597hewasprosperousenoughtobuyNewPlaceinStratford,whichlaterwasthehomeofhisretirementyears.In1599hebecameapartnerintheownershipoftheGlobetheatre,andin1608hewaspartowneroftheBlackfriarstheatre.ShakespeareretiredandreturnedtoStratfordc.1613.Heundoubtedlyenjoyedacomfortablelivingthroughouthiscareerandinretirement,althoughhewasneverawealthyman.TheChronologyofThechronologyofShakespeare'splaysisuncertain,butareasonableapproximationoftheirordercanbeinferredfromdatesofpublication,referencesincontemporarywritings,allusionsintheplaystocontemporaryevents,thematicrelationships,andmetricalandstylisticcomparisons.HisfirstplaysarebelievedtobethethreepartsofHenryVI;itisuncertainwhetherPartIwaswrittenbeforeorafterPartsIIandIII.RichardIIIisrelatedtotheseplaysandisusuallygroupedwiththemasthefinalpartofafirsttetralogyofhistoricalplays.AfterthesecomeTheComedyofErrors,TitusAndronicus(almostathirdofwhichmayhavebeenwrittenbyGeorgePeele),TheTamingoftheShrew,TheTwoGentlemenofVerona,Love'sLabour'sLost,andRomeoandJuliet.Someofthecomediesofthisearlyperiodareclassicalimitationswithastrongelementoffarce.Thetwotragedies,TitusAndronicusandRomeoandJuliet,werebothpopularinShakespeare'sownlifetime.InRomeoandJulietthemainplot,inwhichthenewlovebetweenRomeoandJulietcomesintoconflictwiththelongstandinghatredbetweentheirfamilies,isskillfullyadvanced,whilethesubstantialdevelopmentofminorcharacterssupportsandenrichesit.Aftertheseearlyplays,andbeforehisgreattragedies,ShakespearewroteRichardII,AMidsummerNight'sDream,KingJohn,TheMerchantofVenice,PartsIandIIofHenryIV,MuchAdoaboutNothing,HenryV,JuliusCaesar,AsYouLikeIt,andTwelfthNight.Thecomediesofthisperiodpartakelessoffarceandmoreofidyllicromance,whilethehistoryplayssuccessfullyintegratepoliticalelementswithindividualcharacterization.Takentogether,RichardII,eachpartofHenryIV,andHenryVformasecondtetralogyofhistoricalplays,althougheachcanstandalone,andtheyareusuallyperformedseparately.ThetwopartsofHenryIVfeatureFalstaff,avividlydepictedcharacterwhofromthebeginninghasenjoyedimmensepopularity.TheperiodofShakespeare'sgreattragediesandthe"problemplays"beginsin1600withHamlet.FollowingthisareTheMerryWivesofWindsor(writtentomeetQueenElizabeth'srequestforanotherplayincludingFalstaff,itisnotthematicallytypicaloftheperiod),TroilusandCressida,All'sWellThatEndsWell,MeasureforMeasure,Othello,KingLear,Macbeth,AntonyandCleopatra,Coriolanus,andTimonofAthens(thelastmayhavebeenpartiallywrittenbyThomasMiddleton).Onfamilial,state,andcosmiclevels,Othello,Lear,andMacbethpresentclearoppositionsofbecomeincreasinglycompressedandsymbolic.Throughtheportrayalofpoliticalleadersastragicheroes,CoriolanusandAntonyandCleopatrainvolvethestudyofpoliticsandsocialhistoryaswellasthepsychologyofindividuals.ThelasttwoplaysintheShakespeareancorpus,HenryVIIIandTheTwoNobleKinsmen,becollaborationswithJohnFletcher.Theremainingfourplays?i>Pericles(twoactsofwhichmayhavebeenwrittenbyGeorgeWilkins),Cymbeline,TheWinter'sTale,andTheTempest7retragicomedies.Theyfeaturecharactersoftragicpotential,butresemblecomedyinthattheirconclusionsaremarkedbyaharmoniousresolutionachievedthroughmagic,withallitsdivine,humanistic,andartisticimplications.retragicomedies.Theyfeaturecharactersoftragicpotential,butresemblecomedyinthattheirconclusionsaremarkedbyaharmoniousresolutionachievedthroughmagic,withallitsdivine,humanistic,andartisticimplications.AppealandSincehisdeathShakespeare'splayshavebeenalmostcontinuallyperformed,innon-English-speakingnationsaswellasthosewhereEnglishisthenativetongue;theyarequotedmorethantheworksofanyothersingleauthor.Theplayshavebeensubjecttoongoingexaminationandevaluationbycriticsattemptingtoexplaintheirperennialappeal,whichdoesnotappeartoderivefromanysetofprofoundorexplicitlyformulatedideas.Indeed,Shakespearehassometimesbeencriticizedfornotconsistentlyholdingtoanyparticularphilosophy,religion,orideology;forexample,thesubplotofAMidsummerNight'sDreamincludesaburlesqueofthekindoftragiclovethatheidealizesinRomeoandJuliet.ThestrengthofShakespeare'splaysliesintheabsorbingstoriestheytell,intheirwealthofcomplexcharacters,andintheeloquentspeechivid,forceful,andatthesametimelyric杢hattheplaywrightputsonhischaracters'lips.IthasoftenbeennotedthatShakespeare'scharactersareneitherwhollygoodnorwhollyevilandthatitistheirflawed,inconsistentnaturethatmakesthemmemorable.Hamletfascinatesaudienceswithhisambivalenceaboutrevengeandtheuncertaintyoverhowmuchofhismadnessisfeignedandhowmuchgenuine.Falstaffwouldnotbebelovedif,inadditiontobeinggenial,openhearted,andwitty,hewerenotalsoboisterous,cowardly,and,ultimately,poignant.Finally,theplaysaredistinguishedbyanunparalleleduseoflanguage.Shakespearehadatremendousvocabularyandacorrespondingsensitivitytonuance,aswellasasingularaptitudeforcoiningneologismsandpunning.EditionsandThefirstcollectededitionofShakespeareistheFirstFolio,publishedin1623andincludingalltheplaysexceptPericlesandTheTwoNobleKinsmen(thelatterplayalsogenerallynotappearinginmoderneditions).Eighteenoftheplaysexistinearlierquartoeditions,eightofwhichareextremelycorrupt,possiblyhavingbeenreconstructedfromanactor'smemory.ThefirsteditionofShakespearetodividetheplaysintoactsandscenesandtomarkexitsandentrancesisthatofNicholasRowein1709.OtherimportantearlyeditionsincludethoseofAlexanderPope(1725),LewisTheobald(1733),andSamuelJohnson(1765).AmongShakespeare'smostimportantsources,RaphaelHolinshed'sChroniclesofEngland,Scotland,andIreland(1587)issignificantfortheEnglishhistoryplays,althoughShakespearedidnothesitatetotransformacharacterwhenitsuitedhisdramaticpurposes.ForhisRomantragediesheusedSirThomasNorth'stranslation(1579)ofPlutarch'sLives.Manytimesherewroteoldplays,andtwiceheturnedEnglishproseromancesintodrama(AsYouLikeItandTheWinter'sTale).HealsousedtheworksofcontemporaryEuropeanauthors.ForfurtherinformationonShakespeare'ssources,seethetableentitledShakespeare'sPlay.TheShakespeare'sfirstpublishedworksweretwonarrativepoems,VenusandAdonis(1593)andTheRapeofLucrece(1594).In1599avolumeofpoetryentitledThePassionatePilgrimwaspublishedandattributedentirelytoShakespeare.However,onlyfiveofthepoemsaredefinitelyconsideredhis,twoappearinginotherversionsintheSonnetsandthreeinLove'sLabour'sLost.Aloveelegy,ThePhoenixandtheTurtle,waspublishedin1601.Inthe8and90sand90smanyElizabethanscholarsconcludedthatapoempublishedin1612entitledAFuneralElegyandsigned"W.S."exhibitsmanyShakespeareancharacteristics;ithasnotyetbeendefinitelyincludedinthecanon.Shakespeare'ssonnetsarebyfarhismostimportantnondramaticpoetry.Theywerefirstpublishedin1609,althoughmanyofthemhadcertainlybeencirculatedprivatelybeforethis,anditisgenerallyagreedthatthepoemswerewrittensometimeinthe1590s.Scholarshavelongdebatedtheorderofthepoemsandthedegreeofautobiographicalcontent.Thefirst126ofthe154sonnetsareaddressedtoayoungmanwhoseidentityhaslongintriguedscholars.Thepublisher,ThomasThorpe,wroteadedicationtothefirsteditioninwhichheclaimedthatapersonwiththeinitialsW.H.hadinspiredthesonnets.SomehavethoughttheseletterstobethetransposedinitialsofHenryWriothesley,3dearlofSouthampton,towhomShakespearededicatedVenusandAdonisandTheRapeofLucrece;ortheyarepossiblytheinitialsofWilliamHerbert,3dearlofPembroke,whoseconnectionwithShakespeareismoretenuous.Theidentityofthedarkladyaddressedinsonnets127?52hasalsobeentheobjectofmuchconjecturebutnoproof.Thesonnetsaremarkedbytherecurringthemesofbeauty,youthfulbeautyravagedbytime,andtheabilityofloveandarttotranscendtimeandevenTherehasbeenagreatvarietyofcriticalapproachtoShakespeare'sworksincehisdeath.Duringthe17thand18thcent.,Shakespearewasbothadmiredandcondemned.Sincethen,muchoftheadversecriticismhasnotbeenconsideredrelevant,althoughcertainissueshavecontinuedtointerestcriticsthroughouttheyears.Forinstance,chargesagainsthismoralproprietyweremadebySamuelJohnsoninthe18thcent.andbyGeorgeBernardShawintheEarlycriticismwasdirectedprimarilyatquestionsofform.Shakespearewascriticizedformixingcomedyandtragedyandfailingtoobservetheunitiesoftimeandplaceprescribedbytherulesofclassicaldrama.DrydenandJohnsonwereamongthecriticsclaimingthathehadcorruptedthelanguagewithfalsewit,puns,andambiguity.Whilesomeofhisearlyplaysmightjustlybechargedwithafrivoloususeofsuchdevices,20th-centurycriticismhastendedtopraisetheiruseinlaterplaysasaddingdepthandresonanceofmeaning.Generallycriticsofthe17thand18thcent.accusedShakespeareofawantofartisticrestraintwhilepraisinghimforafecundimagination.SamuelJohnson,whileagreeingwithmanyearliercriticisms,defendedShakespeareonthequestionofclassicalrules.Ontheissueofunityoftimeandplacehearguedthatnooneconsidersthestageplaytobereallifeanyway.JohnsoninauguratedthecriticismofShakespeare'scharactersthatreacheditsculminationinthelate19thcent.withtheworkofA.C.Bradley.TheGermancriticsGottholdLessingandAugustusWilhelmvonSchlegelsawShakespeareasaromantic,differentintypefromtheclassicalpoets,butonequalfooting.SchlegelfirstelucidatedthestructuralunityofShakespeare'splays,aconceptofunitythatisdevelopedmuchmorecompletelybytheEnglishpoetandcriticSamuelWhileSchlegelandColeridgewereestablishingShakespeare'splaysasartistic,organicunities,such19th-centurycriticsastheGermanGeorgGervinusandtheIrishmanEdwardDowdenweretryingtoseepositivemoraltendenciesintheplays.The19th-centuryEnglishcriticWilliamHazlitt,whocontinuedthedevelopmentofcharacteranalysisbegunby9consideredeachShakespeareancharacterconsideredeachShakespeareancharactertobeunique,butfoundaunitythroughanalogyandgradationofcharacterization.WhileA.C.Bradleymarkstheculminationofromantic19th-centurycharacterstudy,healsosuggestedthattheplayshadunifyingimagisticatmospheres,anideathatwasfurtherdevelopedinthe20thcent.Thetendencyin20th-centurycriticismhasbeentoabandonboththestudyofcharacterasindependentpersonalityandtheassumptionthatmoralconsiderationscanbeseparatedfromtheirdramaticandaestheticcontext.Theplayshavebeenincreasinglyviewedintermsoftheunityofimage,metaphor,andtone.CarolineSpurgeonbeganthecarefulclassificationofShakespeare'simagery,andalthoughherattemptswerelaterfelttobesomewhatnaiveandmorallybiased,herworkisalandmarkinShakespeareancriticism.Otherimportanttrendsin20th-centurycriticismincludetheFreudianapproach,suchasErnestJones'sOedipalinterpretationofHamlet;thestudyofShakespeareintermsoftheElizabethanworldviewandElizabethanstageconventions;andthestudyoftheplaysinmythicterms.SeealsobiographiesbyE.K.Chambers(2vol.,1930),G.E.Bentley(1961),S.Schoenbaum(1970and1975),S.Wells(1974),R.Fraser(2vol.,1988),P.Levi(1988,repr.1995),E.Sams(1995),P.Honan(1998),A.Holden(1999),andI.L.Matus(1999);bibliographiesed.byG.R.Smith(1963)andE.Quinnetal.(1973);A.Nicoll,Shakespeare:AnIntroduction(1952);G.Bullough,ed.,NarrativeandDramaticSourcesofShakespeare(8vol.,1957?5);O.J.CampbellandE.G.Quinn,ed.,TheReader'sEncyclopediaofShakespeare(1966);M.R.MartinandR.C.Harrier,TheConciseEncyclopedicGuidetoShakespeare(1972);M.Spevack,ACompleteandSystematicConcordancetotheWorksofShakespeare(6vol.,1970);TheHarvardConcordancetoShakespeare(1973);S.Wells,ed.,CurrentApproachestoShakespeare:Language,Text,Theatre,andIdeology(1988);G.Taylor,ReinventingShakespeare(1989);J.Bate,TheGeniusofShakespeare(1997);H.Vendler,TheArtofShakespeare'sSonnets(1997);H.Bloom,Shakespeare:TheInventionoftheHuman(1998);D.S.Kastan,ed.,ACompaniontoShakespeare(1999);S.Orgel,ImaginingShakespeare:AHistoryofTextsandVisions(2003);B.Vickers,Shakespeare,Co-Author(2003);S.Wells,ShakespeareforAllTime(2003);S.Greenblatt,WillintheWorldFrancisBaconwasthesonofNicolasBacon,theLordKeeperoftheSealofElisabethI.HeenteredTrinityCollegeCambridgeatage12.Baconlaterdescribedhistutorsas"Menofsharpwits,shutupintheircellsofafewauthors,chieflyAristotle,theirDictator."ThisislikelythebeginningofBacon'srejectionofAristotelianismandScholasticismandtheHisfatherdiedwhenhewas18,andbeingtheyoungestsonthislefthimvirtuallypenniless.Heturnedtothelawandat23hewasalreadyintheHouseofCommons.HisrichrelativesdidlittletoadvancehiscareerandElisabethapparentlydistrustedhim.wasnotuntilJamesIbecameKingthatBacon'scareeradvanced.HerosetobecomeBaronVerulam,ViscountSt.AlbanswasnotuntilJamesIbecameKingthatBacon'scareeradvanced.HerosetobecomeBaronVerulam,ViscountSt.AlbansandLordChancellorofEngland.HisfallcameaboutinthecourseofastrugglebetweenKingandParliament.Hewasaccusedofhavingtakenabribewhileajudge,triedandfoundguilty.Hethuslosthispersonalhonour,hisfortuneandhisplaceatLorenEiseleyinhisbeautifullywrittenbookaboutBaconTheManWhoSawThroughTimeremarksthatBacon:"...morefullythananymanofhistime,entertainedtheideaoftheuniverseasaproblemtobesolved,examined,meditatedupon,ratherthanasaneternallyfixedstage,uponwhichmanThisisthetitlepagefromBacon'sInstauratioMagnawhichcontainshisNovumOrganumwhichisanewmethodtoreplacethatofAristotle.TheimageisofashippassingthroughthepillarsofHercules,whichsymbolizedfortheancientsthelimitsofman'spossibleexplorations.Theimagerepresentstheanalogybetweenthegreatvoyagesofdiscoveryandtheexplorationsleadingtotheadvancementoflearning.InTheAdvancementofLearningBaconmakesthisanalogyexplicit.SpeakingtoJamesI,towhomthebookisdedicated,hewrites:"ForwhyshouldafewreceivedauthorsstanduplikeHerculescolumns,beyondwhichthereshouldbenosailingordiscovering,sincewehavesobrightandbenignastarasyourMajestytoconductandprosperus."TheimagealsoforcefullysuggeststhatusingBacon'snewmethod,theboundariesofancientlearningwillbepassed.TheLatinphraseatthebottomfromtheBookofDanielmeans:"ManywillpassthroughandknowledgewillbeBaconsawhimselfastheinventorofamethodwhichwouldkindlealightinnature-"alightthatwouldeventuallydiscloseandbringintosightallthatismosthiddenandsecretintheuniverse."Thismethodinvolvedthecollectionofdata,theirjudiciousinterpretation,thecarryingoutofexperiments,thustolearnthesecretsofnaturebyorganizedobservationofitsregularities.Bacon'sproposalshadapowerfulinfluenceonthedevelopmentofscienceinseventeenthcenturyEurop