托福阅读材料之

智课网TOEFL备考资料托福阅读材料之OliverWendellHolmesJr出国英语考试有哪些雅思6.5是什么水平雅思阅读评分标准托福阅读评分标准雅思和托福的区别

OliverWendellHolmes,Jr.(March8,1841–March6,1935)wasanAmericanjuristwhoservedasanassociatejusticeontheSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStatesfrom1902to1932.Notedforhislongservice,hisconciseandpithyopinions,andhisdeferencetothedecisionsofelectedlegislatures,heisoneofthemostwidelycitedUnitedStatesSupremeCourtjusticesinhistory,particularlyforhis"clearandpresentdanger"majorityopinioninthe1919caseofSchenckv.UnitedStates,andisoneofthemostinfluentialAmericancommon-lawjudges.

Earlylife

HolmeswasborninBoston,Massachusetts,thesonoftheprominentwriterandphysicianOliverWendellHolmes,Sr.andabolitionistAmeliaLeeJackson.Asayoungman,HolmeslovedliteratureandsupportedtheabolitionistmovementthatthrivedinBostonsocietyduringthe1850s.HegraduatedfromHarvardUniversityin1861,wherehewaselectedtothePhiBetaKappahonorsocietyandwasabrotheroftheAlphaDeltaPhi.

CivilWar

Duringhissenioryearofcollege,attheoutsetoftheAmericanCivilWar,Holmesenlistedinthefourthbattalion,Massachusettsmilitia,andthenreceivedacommissionasfirstlieutenantintheTwentiethRegimentofMassachusettsVolunteerInfantry.Hesawmuchaction,fromthePeninsulaCampaigntotheWilderness,sufferingwoundsattheBattleofBall'sBluff,Antietam,andFredericksburg.Holmesparticularlyadmiredandwasclosetohisfellowofficerinthe20thMass.,HenryLivermoreAbbott.HolmesissaidtohaveshoutedatLincolntotakecoverduringtheBattleofFortStevens,althoughthisiscommonlyregardedasapocryphal.[Note:Inthebiography"JusticeOliverWendellHolmes:LawandtheInnerSelf"byEdwardG.White,JusticeHolmesisquotedasindicatingthatwhilehewasatFortStevensonthedayofPresidentA.Lincoln'svisit,hedeniedthathemadeanyremarksatalltothePresident.

StateJudgeship

OliverWendellHolmesJr.asayoungman.Afterthewar'sconclusion,HolmesreturnedtoHarvardtostudylaw.Hewasadmittedtothebarin1866,andwentintopracticeinBoston.Hejoinedasmallfirm,andmarriedachildhoodfriend,FannyBowditchDixwell.TheirmarriagelasteduntilherdeathonApril30,1929.Theyneverhadchildrentogether.Theydidadoptandraiseanorphanedcousin,DorothyUpham.Mrs.Holmeswasdescribedasdevoted,witty,wise,tactful,andperceptive.Wheneverhecould,HolmesvisitedLondonduringthesocialseasonofspringandsummer.Heformedhisclosestfriendshipswithmenandwomenthere,andbecameoneofthefoundersofwhatwassooncalledthe“sociological”schoolofjurisprudenceinGreatBritain,whichwouldbefollowedagenerationlaterbythe“legalrealist”schoolinAmerica.HolmespracticedadmiraltylawandcommerciallawinBostonforfifteenyears.In1870,HolmesbecameaneditoroftheAmericanLawReview,editedaneweditionofKent'sCommentariesonAmericanLawin1873,andpublishednumerousarticlesonthecommonlaw.In1881,hepublishedthefirsteditionofhiswell-regardedbookTheCommonLaw,inwhichhesummarizedtheviewsdevelopedintheprecedingyears.Inthebook,Holmessetsforthhisviewthattheonlysourceoflaw,properlyspeaking,isajudicialdecision.Judgesdecidecasesonthefacts,andthenwriteopinionsafterwardpresentingarationalefortheirdecision.Thetruebasisofthedecisionisoftenan"inarticulatemajorpremise"outsidethelaw.Ajudgeisobligedtochoosebetweencontendinglegaltheories,andthetruebasisofhisdecisionisnecessarilydrawnfromoutsidethelaw.TheseviewsendearedHolmestothelateradvocatesoflegalrealismandmadehimoneoftheearlyfoundersoflawandeconomicsjurisprudence.Holmeswasconsideredforafederalcourtjudgeshipin1878byPresidentRutherfordB.Hayes,butMassachusettsSenatorGeorge

FrisbieHoarconvincedHayestonominateanothercandidate.In1882,HolmesbecamebothaprofessoratHarvardLawSchoolandthenajusticeoftheSupremeJudicialCourtofMassachusetts,resigningfromthelawschoolshortlyafterhisappointment.HesucceededJusticeHoraceGray,whomHolmescoincidentallywouldreplaceonceagainwhenGrayretiredfromtheU.S.SupremeCourtin1902.In1899,HolmeswasappointedChiefJusticeoftheMassachusettsSupremeJudicialCourt.DuringhisserviceontheMassachusettscourt,Holmescontinuedtodevelopandapplyhisviewsofthecommonlaw,usuallyfollowingprecedentfaithfully.Heissuedfewconstitutionalopinionsintheseyears,butcarefullydevelopedtheprinciplesoffreeexpressionasacommon-lawdoctrine.Hedepartedfromprecedenttorecognizeworkers'righttoorganizetradeunionsaslongasnoviolenceorcoercionwasinvolved,statinginhisopinionsthatfundamentalfairnessrequiredthatworkersbeallowedtocombinetocompeteonanequalfootingwithemployers.

Retirement,death,honorsandlegacy

HolmesservedonthecourtuntilJanuary12,1932,whenhisbrethrenonthecourt,citinghisadvancedage,suggestedthatthetimehadcomeforhimtostepdown.Bythattime,at90yearsofage,hewastheoldestjusticetoserveinthecourt'shistory.Threeyearslater,HolmesdiedofpneumoniainWashington,D.C.in1935,twodaysshortofhis94thbirthday.Inhiswill,HolmeslefthisresiduaryestatetotheUnitedStatesgovernment(hehadearliersaidthat"Taxesarewhatwepayforcivilizedsociety"inCompaniaGeneralDeTabacosDeFilipinasvs.CollectorofInternalRevenue,275U.S.87,100(1927).)HewasburiedinArlingtonNationalCemetery,andiscommonlyrecognizedasoneofthegreatestjusticesoftheU.S.SupremeCourt.

Holmes'spapers,donatedtoHarvardLawSchool,werekeptclosedformanyyearsafterhisdeath,acircumstancethatgaverisetonumerousspeculativeandfictionalizedaccountsofhislife.CatherineDrinkerBowen'sfictionalizedbiography"YankeefromOlympus"wasalong-timebestseller,andthe1951HollywoodmotionpictureTheMagnificentYankeewasbasedonahighlyfictionalizedplayaboutHolmes'slife.SincetheopeningoftheextensiveHolmespapersinthe1980s,however,therehasbeenaseriesofmoreaccuratebiographiesandscholarlymonographs.

主要思想

霍姆斯的哲学观受到了社会达尔文主义和实用主义的影响，这在他生前和死后都遭到了批评。霍姆斯在1927年的Buck诉Bell案中，认为州政府强制给智障者绝育并不违反联邦法律，他声称：“痴呆人有三代就够了。”这是霍姆斯在判例中奉行社会达尔文主义的著名例子。霍姆斯在对待种族和贫困问题上的个人态度上有精英主义之嫌，这也遭到了批评，他的好友路易斯·布兰戴斯曾评论道：霍姆斯“对