企业文化建设外文翻译文献

企业文化建设外文翻译文献（文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译）原文:Enterpriseculture:necessaryinpromotingenterpriseStevenCarterThepaperinvestigatestheeffectsoftheZimbabweannationalcultureonenterprisedevelopment.In-depthinterviewswerecarriedoutwithfifteenentrepreneursandsevenmembersofthecommunitywhoserolewastosupportentrepreneurs.Itwasestablishedthatthenationalcultureimpededenterprisedevelopmentandthefactorsidentifiedare:baddebtculture,let's-pull-him-downsyndrome,dependencysyndrome,highliving,andabsenceofrolemodels,refusaltoacceptentrepreneurship,employingrelativesandpoorqualitygoodsandservices.Topromoteenterprisedevelopment,countriesneedtoidentifyfactorsthatmakeupthenationalculture.Thepaperalsoidentifiesthedesiredenterpriseculture.INTRODUCTIONEarlierresearchonenterprisedevelopmentmainlyfocusedonthepersonalcharacteristics/traitsoftheindividual,suchastheneedforachievement,locusofcontrol,theabilitytotakerisk,etc(McClelland,1962;McClellandandWinter,1969;Bellu,1988;Rotter,1966).Curran(1994)arguedthattraitsalonewereinadequatetoexplainentrepreneurship,andsomefoundnodirectlinkbetweentraitsandentrepreneurialbehaviour(Bird,1988;Guth,2001).Hence,furtherresearchmovedontoconsideringtheenvironmentalfactors(political,cultural,economic,regulationsandpolicies)thataffectenterprisedevelopment.Itwasarguedthatcountriesdesiringtopromoteenterprisedevelopmentneedtoaddresstheseenvironmentalfactors(Telantino,1995;UNCTAD,1995;Gnyawaii,1994;Bird,1989;Chell,1985;Vaselainen,1999).Enterprisedevelopmenthasbeenviewedasameansofreducingunemployment,easingothersocialproblemsandasthebestwayofcreatingwealthinacountry(Nolan,2003;Storey,2000).Asaresultoftheabovereasons,bothdevelopinganddevelopedcountrieshaveembracedenterprisedevelopment.Likemanyothercountries,Zimbabwehasrunenterprisedevelopmentprogrammes,createdandadoptedpoliciesaimedatcreatingaconduciveenvironmentforenterprisedevelopment.Unfortunately,theeffortstopromoteenterprisedevelopmentinZimbabwehavenotbeensuccessful(Mlambo,2000;UNDP,2000).ThepaperexploresthefactorsthatmakeuptheZimbabweannationalculturerelatingtoenterprisedevelopment.Italsoestablishestheeffectsthatthesefactorshavehadonenterprisedevelopment.LITERATUREREVIEWCultureisdefinedasasetofhistoricallyevolved,learnedvalues,attitudesandmeaningssharedbythemembersofagivencommunity,thatinlluencetheirmaterialandnon-materialwayoflife(Tayeb,1988).Theseevolvethroughdifferentstagesofsocialisation,throughinstitutionslikefamily,religion,formaleducationetc.Itwasfurtherassertedthatdifferentculturesinfluenceenterprisedevelopmentdifferently(Hofstede,1991).Furthermore,othersbelievethatthenationalcultureshouldbeincludedwhendiscussingenterprisedevelopmentofthecountry(Wortzel,1997;Morrison,2000).Forexample,itwasbelievedthatenterprisedevelopmentsuccessinUSAwasasaresultofitsculturethatpromotesindividualism(DePilliseta/,1998;Wong,2001),whilefailureofenterprisedevelopmentinIrelandwasasaresultofaculturethatpromotesconformitytothestatusquo(DePillis,1998).InIndia,enterprisedevelopmentencounteredproblemsduetoaculturethatpromotedspiritualharmonyandacceptanceofdestiny(Dana,2000).Similarly,entrepreneurshiphasnotsucceededincountrieswhereithasabadimage,whereentrepreneursareviewedasgreedy,unkind,thieves,exploitersofpeopleetc(JoyantandWarner,1996;Morrison,2000;Bateman,1997).Ontheotherhand,entenrisedevelopmentsucceedsinanationthatembracesit,whereitisviewedasanoblewayoflifeandespeciallywherefailureisnotdemonisedbythesociety(Morrison,2000;Wong2001;DePillis,1998;Nolan,2003).Enterprisesuccesshasalsobeenrecordedincountrieswheretherearerolemodelswhowouldinspireothers(DePillis,1998).Rolemodelscanevenbemembersofone'simmediateorextendedfamily(Gibb,1996).Therefore,countriescanattempttopromoteenterprisedevelopmentbyacceptingandelevatingthesocietalrolemodelsandraisingthepracticalsupportgiventoentrepreneurs(Raynolds,1991;Specht,1993).Entrepreneurswhoenjoy'high-living'attheexpenseoftheirenterpriseshavedifficultiesinsucceeding(Spring,1998).Inbothdevelopedanddevelopingcountries,somegraduatesdislikebeingassociatedwithworkingforSmalltoMediumEnterprises(SMEs)andself-employment.ThismakesitdifficultforsomecountriestopromoteenterpriseasitisnotacceptedbytheverypeoplewhohavethebestcapacitytosucceedasbusinesspeopleandMorrison(2000)arguesthatformaleducationsystemistobeblamedforproducingconformistsandnotentrepreneurs.Toaddressthis,Stevenson(1996)arguesthatentrepreneurshipshouldbetaughtfromayoungage,inschoolsandcolleges.Meyanathan(1994)demonstratedthedifficultiesinpromotingenterpriseinacountrythatfavoursacertaingroupofpeopleoverothers;becausetheonesfavouredwilldevelopasenseofentitlement,whilsttheneglectedresenttheentiresystem.Literatureresearchedhasdiscusseddifferentaspectsofculturethathaveaffectedenterprisedevelopment,buttherehasnotbeenacomprehensivecatalogueofthesefactorsthatmakeupanationalculturerelatingtoenterprisedevelopment.Hence,thispaperexploresthefactorsthatmakeupthenationalculture,and,inparticular,thoserelatingtoenterprisedevelopmentinZimbabwe.RESEARCHMETHODThepaperseekstoexploreandexplaintheculturalfactorsthathavenegativelyaffectedenterprisedevelopmentinZimbabwe.Thereisneedtoanswerthequestions,whatarethenationalculturalfactorsthathaveaffectedenterprisedevelopmentinZimbabwe,howhavetheyaffecteditandwhy?Hence,aninterpretiveapproachwasadopted(Carson,2001).Withininterpretivism,aqualitativeresearchapproachwasused.Thisapproachallowstheinclusionoftacitknowledgeandexperienceoftheresearcherthroughouttheresearchprocess.Basedonthequalitativeresearchmethod,non-probabilistic(purposeful)samplingwascarriedout,wheretherespondentspointedtheresearchertothenextrespondent(Remenyi,2001).Thisiscalledsnowballing.Thesamplewasmadeupoftwenty-tworespondents(elites).Allrespondentswere'elites'chosenfortheirexpertknowledge(Remenyi,1998;LincolnandGuba,1990)ofenterprisedevelopmentinZimbabwe.Amongthemwerefifteenentrepreneursandsevenrespondentswhoseoccupationsoractivitiessupportedentrepreneurs.Thepurposeforsamplingtheotherseven'elites'wastriangulation(Remenyi,1998;LincolnandGuba1990;Carson2001).Therewasneededtogetadifferentviewfromthatofentrepreneurs,thatis,thosewhosupportedtheworkofentrepreneurs(fromfinancialorganisations,developmentandtrainingorganisationsandthegovernment).Theserespondentshadsupportedentrepreneursthroughfinancing,trainingetc.foratleastsixyears.Allentrepreneursinterviewedwerebusinesspeoplewhohadstartedandmanagedtheirenterprisesformorethansixyears.Consistentwiththisresearchapproach,face-to-facein-depthinterviewswerecarriedoutusinganinterviewguide.Theinterviewguidewasbasedonthethemesthathadbeenobtainedfromliteratureandneededfurtherexploration.RespondentswereaskedtoidentifyanddiscussallfactorstheybelievedhadnegativelyaffectedenterprisedevelopmentinZimbabwe.Thecollecteddatawasanalysedusingthethematicanalysis,asdescribedbyMilesandHuberman(1994),andWengraf(2001).Theresearchwasconductedintwophases.Theinitialphaseculminatedinestablishingalistofculturalfactorsthathaveaffectedenterprisedevelopment.Afterthefirstroundofinterviewswiththe22respondents,theirresponseswereanalysed.Theresultswerethensubjectedtofurtherscrutinybyninerespondentswhohadtakenpartinthefirstroundofinterviews,andwhowerehencefamiliarwiththisresearchandconsideredabletoprovidethesoundscrutiny.Furthermore,aprogrammethatwasestablishedtopromoteenterprisedevelopmentwasalsoevaluatedasawayoftriangulation.Itwasawaytofindiftherewasanyconvergenceontheculturalfactorsmentionedbytheentrepreneursashavingnegativelyaffectedenterprisedevelopmentandthosethathadaffectedtheprogramme.Therefore,thesecondroundofinterviewsandanevaluationoftheenterprisedevelopingprogrammeweretoprovidefurtherverification,awayofimprovingtrustworthinessandrigour.Theresearchmethodologyadoptedallowstheresearchertousetacitknowledgeandexperiencethroughouttheprocess;hencetherewillbeinstances(inpresentingthefindings)wheresomeassertionsarenotsourced,butareattributedtotheresearchers'knowledgeandexperienceofZimbabwe.Consistentwiththeresearchmethod,inpresentingfindingsofthisresearch,asummaryoftherespondents'viewsisprovidedandtoemphasisethispositionsomequotationsareincludedinthetextandasampleofotherscanbefoundin.Onerespondentsaid:remember,ourculturedoesnotnecessarilypromotepeoplewhosucceed.Successisnotverymuchpartofourculture.Fromtherespondents'pointofview,oneofthereasonswhyenterprisedevelopmentdidnotflourishinZimbabwewasitsnationalculture.ThefactorsthatmakeuptheZimbabweannationalcultureandhavenegativelyaffectedenterprisedevelopmentare:bad-debtculture,absenceofrolemodels,let'spull-him-downsyndrome,dependencysyndrome,poorqualitygoodsandservicedelivery,refusingtoacceptentrepreneurshipasawayoflife,employingrelatives(kithandkin)andhighliving.TheabovefactorswillnowbeelaboratedBad-debtCultureOneentrepreneursaid:peopledonotpaybackbecausethereisbaddebtculture;itisbaddebtculture,whichweneedtojight.UnitedMerchantBank(UMB)wentunder,itwentdownbecausepeoplewerenotpayingback,thoughtheownerhadwantedtohelpfellowindigenouspeople.Althoughsomerespondentsheldthisview,itshouldbenotedthatnon-paymentwasnottheonlyreasonwhyUMBwentintoliquidation.UMBwasestablishedattheheightofindigenisationandbyanindigenousentrepreneur.UMBconsidereditselfachampionofindigenisationandaccusedthetraditionalmultinationalbanksoffailingtosupportindigenousentrepreneurs.Onaweeklybasis,thisbankadvertisedinthenationalpress,theneedtoindigeniseandmadetheaccusationsmentionedabove.AccordingtoUMB,thetraditionalbanks'lendingconditionsweretoostrictandtheirdemandscouldnotbeeasilymetbymostindigenousentrepreneurs;forexample,collateralandowncontribution.Consequently,UMBurgedthemtofollowitsexampleofrelaxingtheborrowingrequirements,wherecollateralwaslessemphasisedthanotheraspectslikeprojectviabilityandmanagement.Asaresult,goodprojectproposals(onpaper)wereproduced,receivedfunding;unfortunately,moneywasnotpaidbackandwithoutcollateralthebankcouldnotrecoveritsdebtsanditwentintoliquidation.Asaresult,depositors'fundswerelost.Inshort,UMBdidnotfollowprudentlendingpractice;hence,itisasmuchtoblameastheborrowerswhofailedtopayback.UMBfailedtotakeintocognisancethebad-debtculturaldimensionamongitsborrowers.EnterpriseCulture:NecessaryInPromotingEnterpriseTherehasbeenampleevidencetosupportthisassertion.Theresearchestablishedthatin1992,thegovernmentmadeavailableZ$100milliontosupportindigenousbusinessesandthedefaultrateforthismoneywasabouttwentyeightpercent(28%).In1994,thegovernmentprovided$400millionforindigenousenterprisesandthedefaultrateforthisfacilitywasaboutthirtytwopercent(32%).In1997,theWorldBankandthegovernmentmadeanother2$700millionavailableandthedefaultratewasaboutthirtyonepercent(31%).In2000,thegovernmentavailed2$4billionasarevolvingfundforenterprisedevelopmentandby20020nly$2billioncouldberevolved,therestwaslosttobaddebtors.Thereareotherexamples,wherecertainindividualshaveborrowedfrombanksandnotpaidback.Forexample,Mr.Sibanda(nothisrealname)whoisnowawellknownpropertymogulinZimbabwe;hasborrowedhugeamountsfromdifferentbankstobuyseveralcompanies(onecompanywasashoemakingcompany,anothermanufacturingconglomerate,boughtsharesinacementmakingcompanyandothers)andhasbeenabaddebtor.Throughhispropertydevelopingcompany,hedevelopedpropertiesusingborrowedmoneyfromabuildingsocietyanddidnotpayback.Thebuildingsocietylateronwentintofinancialdifficulties(notnecessarilybecauseofhimalone)andhadtoberescuedbytheCentralBank.Theaspectofbaddebtculturerelatestothefactthatentrepreneurslikeborrowing,butnotpayingbackwhattheyborrow.Itwasestablishedthatthosewholendtotheentrepreneursfacemajorchallengesincollectingtheirdebtsfromtheborrowers.Respondentsbelievedthatmanyentrepreneursareundertheimpressionthatonecanborrowbutnotnecessarilyneedtopayback.Asaresultofthiscultureandresultantbehaviour,someprogrammes(includingdonormoneymentionedabove)thatlentmoneytoSMEshavehadhighdefaultrates.DateSource:StevenCarter.Enterpriseculture:necessaryinpromotingenterprise;less-onsfromenterprisedevelopmentinZimbabwe[J].JournalofEnterpringCulture,2006(3):P177-198译文:企业文化：促进企业的必备要素史蒂文•卡特本论文研究的是津巴布韦国家文化对企业发展方面的影响。以此对15位企业家及支持他们的团体中的7位成员进行了深度的访问。可以确定及识别的妨碍企业发展的国家文化因素有：差的负债文化、唐氏综合症、独立综合症、奢侈的生活及模范人物的缺失，拒绝接受企业家精神，聘用亲属以及低品质的物品和服务。为了促进企业发展，政府需要识别那些组成国家文化的因素。本论文同时也识别期望的企业文化。引言早期有关企业发展的研究主要是致力于个体的个人特征的研究，比如对成功的需求，操控点，冒险能力等等（麦克勒兰德，1962；麦克勒兰德和维特，1969；布鲁，1988；罗特，1966）。柯伦（1994）提出单就性格来解释企业家的领袖精神是不充分的，而且有人发现个人性格与企业家的行为无直接关系（波尔多，1988；古斯，2001）。因此，更进一步的研究转移到环境因素（政治、文化、经济、法令政策）对企业发展的影响。但政府想要促进企业的发展需要致力于环境因素是有争议性的。在一个国家中，企业发展已经被认为是一种减少失业、缓解社会问题的途径，也是一种创造财富的最好方法（诺兰,2003）。由于以上种种原因，企业发展被发达及发展中国家所欢迎。和其他国家一样，津巴布韦已经在经营企业发展的计划，制定并采用那些旨在为企业发展创造一个有益的环境的政策。不幸的是在津巴布韦为企业发展所做的努力是不成功的（联合国开发计划署,2000）。本论文研究的一些因素，它们形成津巴布韦的文化并与企业文化相关。同时也确定这些因素对企业发展有所影响。文献综述文化被定义为一系列的影响组织成员的重要的或不重要的生活方式的历史性进程，包括组织成员的学习价值、态度、意义（特也不1988）。这些进化要经历不同的社会化阶段、制度，如家庭、宗教、正式教育等。进一步推断，不同的文化对企业发展有不同地影响（霍夫斯泰德，1991）。而且，其他人认为当讨论国家的企业发展时国家文化应该被考虑到其中（沃策尔.1997；莫里森,2000）。例如，在美国企业发展的成功被认为是促进个人主义文化作用的结果，然而在爱尔兰，企业发展的失败被认为是向权威服从的文化作用的结果。在印度，它们促进精神和谐与对命运的接受的国家文化使得企业发展遇到问题（Dana,2000）。相同地，企业家精神在一些国家是不被认同的，在那里国家形象差，企业家被认为是贪婪的、不善良、小偷、剥削者等等（莫里森2000;贝特曼，1997）。另一方面，企业发展在那些欢迎它的国家也得到成功，在那些国家它被认为是一种高尚的人生方式而且它的失败并未被社会妖魔化（莫里森,2000;汪2001;皮里斯，1998;诺兰，2003）。企业成功被那些国家作为模范记录下来以此激励其他人（皮里斯，1998）。模范人物可以是一个成员或者整个大家庭（吉布1996）。因此，国家能够通过吸收社会角色模范，以及提高对企业家的实际支持来促进企业发展（芮兰德，1991;司丕奇，1993）。以他们的企业为代价而享有奢侈生活的企业家是很难成功的（司普润，1998）。在发达和发展中国家中，一些毕业生不喜欢为中小型或私营企业工作。由于那些有能力通过经商获得成功的人不接受，使得一些国家很难发展企业，毛瑞斯提出正式的教育系统培养出顺从者而非事业者而被批判。为解决这个，斯蒂文森认为企业精神应该在学校就教给年轻人。梅雅兰仁（1994）认为在发展企业时，肯定集体里的某几个人是困难的，因为被肯定的人会产生一种优越感，而被忽视的就会厌恶整个体制。经研究的文献已经对影响企业发展的文化的各个方面进行了讨论，却对那些组成与企业发展有关的国家文化的因素没有全面的分类。因此，本论文研究这些能形成国家文化的因素，特别是在津巴布韦它们与企业发展有关。研究方法本论文找寻的是研究和解释那些在津巴布韦影响企业发展的消极文化因素。这需要回答这些问题：在津巴布韦影响企业发展的国家文化因素是什么？它们是怎样影响又为什么影响？因此，一种可解释的方法被采用了（卡森,2001）。这个方法在研究过程中，研究者的隐性知识和经验涉及在其中。根据定性研究方法，进行了定性设样，研究者由此从一个反应进行到下一个（雷门伊,2001）。这就叫滚雪球。这个样本由22个受访者组成。所有被选中的受访者都具有津巴布韦的企业发展的专业知识（雷门伊，1998;林肯，1990）。他们中有15个企业家和7个支持企业家的受访者。设7个其他受访者的目的是进行三角测量。（雷门伊，1998林肯1990;卡尔森2001）。从企业家的支持者中得到一些不同于企业家的观点（如财政机构，发展和培训机构，政府等）。所有被采访的企业家都是开始或管理他们的企业超过6年的商人。与这个研究方法同步的是通