企业创新战略外文翻译文献

企业创新战略外文翻译文献（文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译）翻译之一：Choosinganinnovationstrategy:theoryandpracticeAuthor：JosephT.GilbertNationality：AmericaDerivation：BusinessHorizons,Nov-Dec,1994Innovationscomeasbothinventionsandadoptions.Theycomeinmanytypesandvarygreatlyincomplexityandscope.Companiesattemptingtomakeaprofitcannotcontinueforlongperiodswithoutinnovating.Iftheytry,theircustomerswillleavethemforfirmswithmoreup-to-dateproductsorservices.Itisanobservedfactthatdifferentcompaniestakedifferentapproachestotheuseofinnovationinattemptingtoimprovetheirperformance.Bothacademicandpractitionerpublicationsinrecentyearshavecontainedagreatdealofwritingaboutinnovation,thesubjectsofwhichhaverangedfromcomparisonsofnationalpatternsofinnovationtostudiesofindividualinnovations.However,littlehasbeenpublishedregardingoneissueofboththeoreticalandpracticalimportance:theinnovationpolicyorstrategyofindividualfirms.Businessstrategyasafieldofstudyisconcernedwithhowacompanycompetesinitschosenbusiness.Itdealswiththeanalysisofafirm'sstrengthsandweaknessesandtheopportunitiesandthreatspresentedbythefirm'senvironment.Strategylookstowardconsistentexecutionofbroadplanstoachievecertainlevelsofperformance.Innovationstrategydeterminestowhatdegreeandinwhatwayafirmattemptstouseinnovationtoexecuteitsbusinessstrategyandimproveitsperformance.Tochooseaninnovationstrategy,managersmightlogicallystartbythinkingaboutvariouskindsofinnovationsandtheirrequirements.Weshalldiscussthreemajorfeaturesofinnovation,andanalyzeeachintermsofdistinctopposites,eventhoughinnovationsfoundintherealworldmoreoftenappearatvariouspointsbetweentheseopposites.Innovationissometimesusedinalimitedsensetoreferonlytoinventions(products,services,oradministrativeproceduresthatnootherfirmhasintroduced).Moreoften,however,itappliesinamoregeneralsensethatincludesbothinventionasdescribedaboveandimitation(adoptionbyafirmofaproduct,service,oradministrativeprocedurethatisnotaninventionbutisnewtothatfirm).Weusetheterminthissecondsense.Innovationscanbecharacterizedinavarietyofways.Inthefollowingsectionswewillreviewthreewaysofdescribinginnovations:incremental/radical;firstmover/latemover;andimitative/inventive.Thethreecategoriesarenotmutuallyexclusive.However,eachpointstoadifferentfeatureofinnovationandrevealsinsightsnotfoundasreadilyintheothertwo.DEGREEOFINNOVATION--FROMRADICALTOINCREMENTALHownewordifferentdoessomethinghavetobebeforeitcanbecalledaninnovationatall?Ifapaintcompanythatcurrentlyoffers12shadesofwhiteaddsathirteenth,isthisaninnovation?Ifastorethatispresentlyopenfrom8a.m.to6p.m.adoptsapolicyofstayingopenaroundtheclock,thiswouldseemtobeaninnovation.Butwhatifitchangesitsopeningtimefrom8a.m.to7:45--isthisaninnovation?IfanairlinethatnowofferstenflightsadayfromNewYorktoChicagoaddsaneleventhflight,isthisinnovative?Attheotherextreme,ifaflowershopownerdecidesthereisnohopeforherbusiness,andsoclosesuphershopandreopensitamonthlaterasausedbookstore,isthisaninnovation?HowaboutwhenU.S.SteeldecidedtobranchoutintooilandnaturalgasandchangeitsnametoUSX?Wasthataninnovation?Theseissuesmayappeartobesotrivialastoinvolveonlywordgames,butinallthewritingsoninnovationwehavefoundnocleardefinitionoftheconcept.Tothinkclearlyaboutanissue,itishelpfultodefineitslimits.Therearesomeinnovationsthataresominortheyarebarelyperceivedaschanges.Clearlytheyhavenoimpactonafirm'sbasicstrategies.Attheotherextreme,someinnovationsaresogreatthattheyresultinafundamentalchangeintheverynatureofabusiness,leavingbehindnothingoftheoldbusiness.Boththeseextremesarebeyondthescopeofourdiscussion;instead,weareconcernedwiththevastmiddleground.Someinnovationsaredramaticintheirscopeandimpactandclearlyfallintothecategoryofradical.Forexample,theintroductionofautomatictellermachinesmadeafundamentalchangeintheavailabilityofsomeretailbankingservices.Thepersonalcomputer,thoughstillacomputer,isaradicallydifferentwayofprovidingcomputingpowertomanypeoplewhopreviouslyhadaccesstoitonlythroughthemediumofmainframesorminicomputersandtheinterventionofinformationsystemsprofessionals.Theuseofhigh-yieldbondstofinancetakeoversbroughtfundamentalchangestocorporateownershipinthe1980s.Severalstudies,suchasMitchell(1989)andTushmanandAnderson(1986),haveindicatedthatradicalinnovationstendtobeintroducedbycompaniesoutsideanindustryorbynewcomersratherthanbyindustryincumbents.Theseauthorsdemonstratethatradicalinnovationsthatenhanceskillspossessedwithinanindustrytendtobeintroducedbyincumbents,whereasthosethatdestroyexistingskillstendtobeintroducedbynewfirmsorindustryoutsiders.Theyalsohaveshownthatthetimingoftheintroductionofradicalinnovationspresentsdifferentproblemsforthetwogroups(industryincumbentsandoutsiders).Innovationsthatareradicalwhenfirstintroducedappearlesssoaftertheyhavebecomepopularandtheiradoptioniswidespread.Apple'sintroductionofthepersonalcomputerwasaradicalinnovation.WhenIBMintroduceditsfirstPCseveralyearslater,theinnovationwaslessradical.WhenDellandGateway2000beganretailingpersonalcomputers,theproductwascommonplace,butthemethodofdistribution(directmail)wasseenbysomeasaradicaldeparturefromprevioussalesmethods.Theslightestofincrementalinnovationsbeginsatwhateverpointwedecidethereisaninnovationatall.Becausetheybuildonexistingproducts,services,orroutinesandmodifythemtosomedegree,incrementalinnovationsaregenerallyeasiertoplanandimplement,andinvolvelesschangethanradicalinnovations.Thisisnottosaythattheydonothavestrategicvalue,orthatthetotalresultofaseriesofincrementalinnovationscannotbequiteimpressivewhencomparedtothestartingpoint.Thesinglelensreflex35mmcamerahasbeenonthemarketforanumberofyears.Manysmallimprovementshavebeenmadesinceitsfirstintroduction.Andalthougheachwouldqualifyasanincrementalinnovation,today's35mmSLRcameraisnonethelessquitedifferentfromthefirstoneintroduced.STIMULUSFORINNOVATION--FROMFIRSTMOVERSTOLATEMOVERSInventionsare,bydefinition,onlyintroducedbyonefirm,oratmostbyasmallhandfuloffirmsthatbringanewproductorservicetomarketsimultaneously.Companiesthatattempttointroduceaninventionshouldlogicallystandtogainsomesubstantialadvantage,becausethereisarealriskofcominglatetothefinishlineandgainingnoprize.Companiesthatsucceedincommercializinganinventionaresometimesknownasfirstmovers.Therearethreebasictypesofadvantagesthatcangotofirstmovers.Ifaninventioninvolvesproprietarytechnology(prescriptiondrugs,computersoftware)thenthefirstfirmtoobtainthepatentorcopyrightwinstheexclusiverighttomarkettheproduct.Thelackofcompetitioncanbeadefinitestrategicadvantage.Forinstance,Xeroxwasthefirsttointroduceplainpapercopiertechnology.Thecompanywassosuccessfulinpatentingthistechnologythatitwasabletobuildupahugecompetitiveleadbeforeitsfirstcompetitorenteredthemarket.Preemptionofscarceassetscansometimesprovideanadvantagetooneorafewfirstmoversthatwillnotbeavailabletothosethatadopttheinnovationlater.Examplesofthisincludescarcelandingslotsatamajorairportandoceanfrontpropertyforrealestatedevelopment.Thecreationofbuyerswitchingcostscanalsoprovideanadvantagetooneorafewfirstmoversthatisdeniedtofollowers.Oncepeoplelearnhowtouseaword-processingprogram,theywillusuallystaywiththatprogrameveninthefaceofanewonewithmorefeatures.Travelerswhohaveaccumulatedfrequentfliermilesononeairlinewillnotreadilyswitchtoanother.选择创新战略：理论与实践作者：詹斯夫•吉尔伯特国籍：美国出处：商业视野，1994年11—12月期创新既是发明也是吸收采纳。他们有许多类型，在复杂程度和范围上也有很大的差别。没有创新公司不可能长时间地赚取利润。如果他们尝试，他们的客户会离开他们的公司而去寻找更切合时宜的产品或服务。这是一个很明显的事实，不同的公司采取不同的做法去创新，以改善他们的工作业绩。学术和实践的刊物近年来已载了大量的有关创新的文章，它们的内容从比较国家模式的创新到研究个别创新。然而，很少看见有关的一个问题是包含理论和实践的重要性：个别公司的创新政策或战略。商业策略，作为一个研究领域，研究的是一家公司如何在其选定的业务范围内与对手竞争。它处理与分析一家公司的长处和短处，以及机会和由该公司所处的环境造成的威胁。战略关注的是一贯执行广泛的计划达到何种程度。创新战略是确定公司用创新来执行其业务策略及改善其业绩到何种程度以及以何种方式。为了选择创新战略，管理人员可能会在逻辑上开始思考各种形式的创新和它们的要求。我们将讨论创新的三个主要特点，分析每一个具有鲜明的对立的条款，即使创新在现实世界中更经常出现在这些对立统一之间的各点。创新是有时被用在仅指发明的有限的意义上（其他公司没有推出过的产品，服务或管理过程）。更经常地，不过，它适用于在一个更一般的意义上，既包括发明，如上文所述及采纳（一个产品，服务或行政程序被一个公司采纳，这不是一项发明，但对该公司而言是新的）。我们使用的是第二个意义。仓0新的特点是可以在多种方面。在以下各节中我们会回顾三种描述创新的方式：渐进/激进；先行者/后行者；模仿/发明。三类是不是相互排斥的。然而，每点都针对一个不同的创新特点并且揭示其他两者所没有的特点。创新的程度-从激进到渐进在可以被称为一个创新之前，它应该达到怎样的新或者不同的程度？如果一个涂料公司，目前提供12种鲜明的白色而又增加了第十三个，这是一个创新？如果一个商店，目前正在开放时间由上午八时至下午六时，而采用的24小时工作制，这似乎是一个创新。但如果它的开放时间由上午八时改为7时45分，这是一个创新？如果一家航空公司现在提供10个每天从纽约到芝加哥的航班，增加了第十一航班，这是创新？在另一个极端，如果一个花店业主认为她的生意是没有希望了，所以关闭了她的店。一个月后，把它作为一个旧书店，这是一个创新？如何时，美国钢铁公司延伸至石油和天然气，并更改其名称为USX？是一个创新？仅涉及文字游戏，这些问题可能会如此的琐碎，但在所有创新的著作中，我们没有发现任何明确的定义。为了弄清楚一个问题，这是有利于界定其局限性。也有一些创新，是如此轻微的，他们几乎是没有知觉的变化。显然它们对一个公司的基本策略没有任何影响。在另一个极端，一些创新是如此巨大以致于它们给公司带来了根本性的变化，对原来业务没有什么保留。这两个极端不在我们的讨论范围内；我们所关注的广大中间地带。有一些创新在程度和影响上都很大这些可以归为激进类。举例来说，引进自动柜员机使得一些零售银行服务做出了根本性的变化。个人电脑，尽管仍是一台电脑，却是对以前曾经接触资讯科技，只有通过媒介主机或迷你电脑和干预信息系统的专业人士提供一个彻底不同的接触方式。在20世纪80年代高收益债券融资的使用使得企业的所有权发生了根本性的变化。很多研究，比如米切尔（1989年）和托什曼和安德森（1986年），已表示激进的创新往往被介绍的公司以外的一个行业或新成员而不是现有成员。这些作者认为，激进的创新包括在一个行业内提高技能，往往是被介绍给现有成员的，而那些破坏现有的技能，往往被介绍给行业外的或者新成员。他们还表明，推出激进的创新的时机展现了这两个团体（行业现任成员和行业外成员）不同的问题。当第一次介绍时它不是很普遍而之后它们变得很普遍并且它们的使用范围很广泛时，这样的创新是激进的。苹果引入个人电脑是一个激进的创新。当IBM在好几年后推出第一台个人电脑，创新就没有那么激进。当戴尔和捷威2000年开始零售个人电脑时，该产品已经是司空见惯了，但分配方式（直接邮寄）是被一些人作为一个激进的方式。最轻微的渐进创新开始于我们决定一个创新的几点。因为它们建立在现有的产品，服务或习惯和在一定程度上修改它们上，渐进创新一般比较容易规划和实施，比激进创新涉及较少的变化。这并不是说他们没有战略价值，或者说，与出发点相比，渐进创新的结果不能相当令人印象深刻。单镜头反光35毫米照相机已在市场上存在了很多年。自它第一次推出以来，已经做了很多小的调整。虽然每个改动都可以作为一个渐进的创新，但今天的35毫米单反相机仍然与第一个推出的颇为不同。刺激创新-从先行者到后行者根据定义发明是只被一家公司所介绍，或只有一小部分公司同时把新产品和服务介绍给市场。公司想要介绍一项发明必须从逻辑上说明它的一些实质性的优势，因为这最终可能会导致风险而无盈利。成功地商品化的一项发明的公司有时也被称为先行者。有三种基本类型的优势，可以使公司成为先行者。如果一项发明涉及的专有技术（处方药，计算机软件）的话，首先取得专利或版权的公司对此产品的市场专有权。缺乏竞争可以是一个明确的战略优势。例如，施乐公司是第一家引进普通纸复印机技术的公司。该公司是在这项技术的专利上是如此的成功以至于它能在第个一竞争对手进入市场前就拥有强大的竞争力。对于先行者而言，建立买方转换成本也可以是一个优势而对于后行者而言这不是。一旦人们了解如何使用文字处理软件，他们通常会留在该程序即使在面临一个新的与更多功能的。那些已经习惯了乘同一个航班的旅客是不会轻易的换到另外一个航班的。先发制人稀缺的资产，可以为一个或几个先行者提供优势而这那些后行者则不会拥有这方面的优势。这方面的例子包括一个主要机场的稀缺降落时段和以海滨地段作为房地产开发。外文翻译之二INNOVATIONANDGROWTHRATIONALEFORANINNOVATIONSTRATEGYAuthor：G.NicolettiandF.SteinerNationality：AmericaDerivation：Regulation,CompetitionandProductivityConvergence,OECDEconomicsDepartmentWorkingPapers,No.509.Innovationalsoreliesheavilyonthecreationofbasicknowledge,throughbotheducationandscience.Awell-performingandbroadlyaccessibleeducationsystemfacilitatestheadoptionanddiffusionofinnovation.Thecontributionofeducationandhumancapitalaccumulationtoeconomicgrowthiswelldocumented.Someofthisoccursthroughscienceandinnovation.Investmentintheeducationandtrainingofresearchersandotherhighlyskilledworkersisamajorfactorindeterminingthecontributionthatscientificresearchcanmaketoscientificprogressandinnovation.Moreover,humancapitalisakeyfactorintheadoptionofnewtechnologiesandtheintroductionofinnovativepractices.MuchofthelatteroperatesthroughgrowthinMFParisingfromimprovementsinmanagerialpractices,organizationalchangeandinventionspurse.Growthofskillsandcompetenciesembodiedinworkersandmanagers—orhumancapital—playafundamentalroleinthisprocess.DataavailableforhalfthenumberofOECDcountriesdepictedinFigure9showsthatgrowthinoutputperemployedpersonispartlyattributabletoincreasesinthehumancapitalofthoseinemployment.Thereisanincreasingemphasisonpolicyissuesrelatedtotheavailabilityofhighlyskilledlabor,inparticularhighlyskilledhumanresourcesinscienceandtechnology.StrongS&Tskillsfacilitatetheuptakeanduseofnewtechnologieswhichdrivesinnovationthroughouttheeconomy.Thisplacesapremiumonboththe“quantity”aswellasthequalityofhighlyskilledlaborintheeconomy.Butas,innovativeactivitymayarisefromanypartoftheproductionprocess,notonlyfromtheR&Dlabormoreintangibleskillssuchasentrepreneurialability,communicationsskills,adaptabilityetc.,alsocontributestronglytoinnovation,especiallyinservicesandinorganizationalinnovation.Asaresult,inmanyofthesuccessfuleducationsystemsthereisnowlessemphasisonthereproductionofsubjectmatterknowledge,whichdevelopsskillsthatareeasiesttodigitize,automatismandoffshore,andmorefocusonteachingandevaluatingskillsinthecontextofreal-worldcomplexity,suchasexpertthinking—theabilitytostructureproblems,complexcommunication,learningstrategiesandself-concept.Educationpolicymakersarepayingincreasingattentiontoinnovationoutcomes,andthereisincreasingemphasistomovetowardsaschoolenvironmentwhichislesselitist,lesscompartmentalizedbetweentrainingfortheoreticalandpracticalunderstanding,andgearedtowardsmakingavastmajorityofstudentssuccessful.ThereisgreaterscrutinyoftheefficiencyofeducationsystemsthroughoutOECD,andagreaterwillingnesstoutilizeinternationalcomparisonsofoutcomesthisarea.Asdistinctfrommorespendingineducationsuchas,goodeducationoutcomeswhichcansupportamoreinnovativeeconomyinvolvestructurallearning,fromafocusonprovisiontoafocusonchoice,frommanaginginputstoeducationtowardsdevolvingresponsibilitiesandenablingoutcomes,fromtalkingaboutequitytodeliveryequity.Onthelatteraspect,forexample,OECDdata(OECD,2004a)showthatmanyoftheproblems,particularlyinEurope,originatefromhighlycompartmentalizedandstratifiedsystemswherelearningoutcomescloselydependonthesocialbackgroundofindividualsandhumanpotentialthereforewasted.TheOECD2007reportidentifieseducationreformasapriorityactionarea.PublicinvestmentinscienceandbasicresearchplaysanimportantroleindevelopingICTandothergeneral-purposetechnologiesand,hence,inenablingfurtherinnovation.Manyhigh-technologycommercialsuccessesandfundamentalinnovationswithdeepandpositivesocialimpactshadtheirrootsinpublicresearchandcamefromfindingsthatwereimpossibletoforesee.FundamentalinnovationssuchastheWorldWideWebandtheWebbrowseremerged,notfromcompetitivemarketprocesses,butlargelyfromgovernment-fundedresearchconductedinuniversities,industryandgovernmentlaboratories.MuchoftheR&Dwasconductedaspartofgovernmentprogrammes,insomecasesafterthemarkethadabandonedtheresearch.Reformofthesteeringandfundingofhighereducationandscienceinstitutions,byprovidingincentivesthatfocusonexcellenceandrelevance,canhelpstrengthenthecontributionofpublicinvestmenttoscientificprogressandinnovation.Bettergovernanceofuniversitiesandpubliclaboratoriescanbeachievedthroughtheuseofnewmechanisms,suchasgreateruseofprojectfunding(typicallycontractsandgrantsawardedthroughcompetition)asopposedtoinstitutionalblockgrants,selectiveincreasesoffundingforresearchfieldsthatarelinkedtosocialandeconomicneeds,andthecreationofmultidisciplinaryresearchcentersornetworksthatservebothtoconcentrateexpertiseinparticularfieldsofscienceandtechnologyandtofosterresearchat