WaterPollutionAPEnvironmentalScienceKearnyHigh水污染美联社环境科学卡尼高课件

WaterPollutionChapter21WaterPollutionChapter211Chapter21Identifywhatpolluteswaterandthesourceofthepollution.Identifythemajorpollutionproblemsaffectingourwaterwaysincludingoceans,surfacewaterandgroundwaterDeterminemethodsto“cleanup”waterDescribestateandfederalwaterlegislationChapter21Identifywhatpollut2VocabularyWordsWaterpollutionpoint/non-pointsourceBiologicalOxygenDemand(BOD)ChemicalOxygenDemand(COD)sludgeSafeDrinkingWaterActCleanWaterActOilSpillPrevention&LiabilityActVocabularyWordsWaterpollutio3IdentifyingPollutionWhichofthebeakersonthefronttablecontainpollutedwater?Chlorine,specificconductanceAcid,pHOrganicconstituents,labanalysisSediment,visualidentificationSurfactants,visualidentificationIdentifyingPollutionWhichof4WeAllLiveDownstream“Today,everybodyisdownstreamfromsomebodyelse,”WilliamRuckelshausWhatdoesthatmean?Howdoesthataffectyourwaterquality?WeAllLiveDownstream“Today,5“Frontline:PoisonedWaters”/video/1114515379/

“Frontline:PoisonedWaters”h6WaterPollutionWaterpollutionisanychemical,biologicalorphysicalchangeinwaterqualitythathasaharmfuleffectonlivingorganismsormakeswaterunsuitablefordesireduses.Whodecidesifwateris“harmful”?Whatdoes“harmful”mean?Which“livingorganisms”matter?WaterPollutionWaterpollution7“Allsubstancesarepoisons,thereisnonewhichisnotapoison.Therightdosedifferentiatesapoisonandaremedy.”

Paracelsus(1493-1541)“Allsubstancesarepoisons,t8ToxicologyThestudyoftheinteractionbetweenchemicalagentsandbiologicalsystems.Toxicityistherelativeabilityofasubstancetocauseadverseeffectsinlivingorganisms.ToxicologyThestudyoftheint9Definitionsof“harmful”Toxicreferstoaparameter,constituenttopollutantthathasanLD50;inotherwords,ithasbeenknowntokillorganisms(usuallyhumans)Hazardousreferstoacompoundwhichcausesacuteorchronichealthproblems,including,butnotlimitedto,death.Definitionsof“harmful”Toxic10Thepointis...Ifthechemicalsandbiologicalagentsthatweuseandproduceaswasteproductswerenot“harmful”insomewaytosomepopulation,therewouldbenopointinstudyingwaterpollution.Thepointis...Ifthechemi11ThesourceofitallPointsource:pollutionthatcomesfromaspecificlocationSludgefromacoppermine.IndustrialdischargeThesourceofitallPointsour12OtherSourcesNon-pointsource:pollutionthatoccursfrommultiplesourceswithnosinglepolluteridentified.OtherSourcesNon-pointsource:13Whoarethepolluters?Themajorsourceof41-48%waterpollutionisagricultureaccordingtotheEPA.Connectthedotsfrompopulationgrowth,foodproduction,wateruseandwaterpollution.IndustrialFacilitiesMunicipalMiningWhoarethepolluters?Themajo14Whatiswaterpollutedwith?Disease-causingagentsOxygendemandingwastePlantnutrients(NO3-,PO43-)Organicchemicals(solvents,petroleum)Inorganicchemicals(Fe,Pb,NH3)SedimentHeatWhatiswaterpollutedwith?Di15Whataretheypolluting?Whataretheypolluting?16Whatelsearetheypolluting?Whatelsearetheypolluting?17EffectsofPollutionThetwomajoreffectsofwaterpollutionare:exposuretoinfectiousagentsfromcontaminateddrinkingwater;and,nothavingenoughwaterforeffectivesanitation.EffectsofPollutionThetwoma18WaterborneDiseasesWaterborneDiseases19Whatis“clean”or“safe”?Thedefinitionofcleanorsafewaterisverydependentonit’suseandthelawsthataffectthesourceanddischargeofthewater.Example:pHRCRA:2>S.U.>12.5SDWA:6.5>S.U.>8.5HMTA:thosesubstanceswhichcausevisibledestructiontoskintissueWhatis“clean”or“safe”?The20TheWaterDrinkingWater:SafeDrinkingWaterActSurfaceWater:CleanWaterActGroundwater:CWA,RCRAasSolidWaste,CERCLAforclean-upTheWaterDrinkingWater:Safe21SurfaceWaterSurfaceWaterispollutedby:humanactivityindustrialactivitypowerplantsSurfaceWaterSurfaceWateris22FreshwaterSourcesFreshwaterSources23WaterQualityTherearetwoclassesofwaterqualitystandards:biologicalchemicalWaterQualityTherearetwocla24ChemicalWaterQualityWaterQualityIndex(WQI)isasetofstandardtestparametersusedtocomparewaterqualityallaroundthecountry.AnnumericalWQIisassignedbasedontheresultsofnine(9)separateparametersChemicalWaterQualityWaterQu25WQIParametersDissolvedOxygen(DO)pHTemperatureChange(ΔT)FecalColiformBiochemicalOxygenDemand(BOD)NitratesTotalPhosphatesTotalDissolvedSolids(TDS)TurbidityorTotalSuspendedSolids(TSS)WQIParametersDissolvedOxygen26QValueMeasurementsofeachparameteraretakenandrecordedandthenareconvertedintoa“Qvalue”QValueMeasurementsofeachpa27WaterPollutionAPEnvironmentalScienceKearnyHigh水污染美联社环境科学卡尼高课件28WaterQualityFactorWeightsThe“Q”valueforeachparameterisdeterminedandmultipliedbyaweightingfactor: Dissolvedoxygen 0.17 Fecalcoliform 0.16 pH 0.11 Biochemicaloxygendemand 0.11 Temperaturechange 0.10 Totalphosphate 0.10 Nitrates 0.10 Turbidity 0.08 Totalsolids 0.07 WaterQualityFactorWeightsTh29FinalcalculationTheweighted“Qvalues”areaddedforalloftheparametersandcomparedtoawaterqualityindexscaleFinalcalculationTheweighted30TheScaleWaterQualityIndexScale91-100:ExcellentWaterQuality71-90:GoodWaterQuality51-70:MediumorAverageQuality26-50:FairWaterQuality0-25:PoorWaterQualityTheScaleWaterQualityIndexS31DissolvedOxygenOxygengasisnotverysolubleinwater.Asthetemperatureofaliquidincreases,thesolubilitiesofgasesinthatliquiddecrease.T,SolubilityDissolvedOxygenOxygengasis32GasSolubilityWecanusetheSecondLawofThermodynamicstoexplainwhy.Heatingasolutionofagasenablestheparticlesofgastomovemorefreelybetweenthesolutionandthegasphase.TheSecondLawpredictsthattheywillshifttothemoredisordered,morehighlydispersed,andtherefore,moreprobablygasstate.GasSolubilityWecanusetheS33WheredoesDOcomefrom?MostoftheDOinsurfacewatercomesfromcontactwiththeatmosphere.SplashingandflowingwatertrapsoxygenPhotosyntheticorganismsalsoproduceoxygenWheredoesDOcomefrom?Mosto34DOTestThetestforDOdeterminestheavailabilityofoxygenforaquaticlifeAhighconcentrationofDOindicateshighwaterqualityDOTestThetestforDOdetermi35

Fig.21-3,p.496WaterQualityBelow4Below4.5DO(ppm)at20°C4.5–6.76.7–88–9GravelypollutedHeavilypollutedModeratelypollutedSlightlypollutedGood Fig.21-3,p.496WaterBelow436Reference/~bradwood/eagles/waterquality.htmReferencehttp://www.indiana.ed37PhysicalInfluencesonDissolvedOxygenWatertemperatureandthevolumeofwatermovingdownariver(discharge)affectdissolvedoxygenlevels.Gases,likeoxygen,dissolvemoreeasilyincoolerwaterthaninwarmerwater.Intemperateareas,riversrespondtochangesinairtemperaturebycoolingorwarming.PhysicalInfluencesonDissolv38ClimateandDORiverdischargeisrelatedtotheclimateofanarea.Duringdryperiods,flowmaybeseverelyreduced,andairandwatertemperaturesareoftenhigher.Bothofthesefactorstendtoreducedissolvedoxygenlevels.Wetweatherormeltingsnowsincreaseflow,witharesultinggreatermixingofatmosphericoxygen.ClimateandDORiverdischarge39Human-CausedChangesinDissolvedOxygenThemainfactorcontributingtochangesindissolvedoxygenlevelsisthebuild-upoforganicwastes.Organicwastesconsistofanythingthatwasoncepartofalivingplantoranimal,includingfood,leaves,feces,etc.Organicwastecanenterriversinsewage,urbanandagriculturalrunoff,orinthedischargeoffoodprocessingplants,meatpackinghouses,dairies,andotherindustrialsources.Human-CausedChangesinDissol40FarmingandDissolvedOxygenAsignificantingredientinurbanandagriculturalrunoffarefertilizersthatstimulatethegrowthofalgaeandotheraquaticplants.Asplantsdie,aerobicbacteriaconsumeoxygenintheprocessofdecomposition.Manykindsofbacteriaalsoconsumeoxygenwhiledecomposingsewageandotherorganicmaterialintheriver.FarmingandDissolvedOxygenA41ChangesinAquaticLifeDepletionsindissolvedoxygencancausemajorshiftsinthekindsofaquaticorganismsfoundinwaterbodies.Speciesthatcannottoleratelowlevelsofdissolvedoxygen-mayflynymphs,stoneflynymphs,caddisflylarvae,andbeetlelarvae-willbereplacedbyafewkindsofpollution-tolerantorganisms,suchaswormsandflylarvae.Nuisancealgaeandanaerobicorganisms(thatlivewithoutoxygen)mayalsobecomeabundantinwaterswithlowlevelsofdissolvedoxygen.ChangesinAquaticLifeDepleti42CalculatingPercentSaturationThepercentsaturationofwaterwithdissolvedoxygenatagiventemperatureisdeterminedbypairingtemperatureofthewaterwiththedissolvedoxygenvalue,afterfirstcorrectingyourdissolvedoxygenmeasurementfortheeffectsofatmosphericpressure.Thisisdonewiththeuseofthecorrectiontableandthepercentsaturationchart.CalculatingPercentSaturation43UsingtheConversionChartsTocalculatepercentsaturation,firstcorrectyourdissolvedoxygenvalue(milligramsofoxygenperliter)foratmosphericpressure.Lookatthecorrectionchart.Usingeitheryouratmosphericpressure(asreadfromabarometer)oryourlocalaltitude(ifabarometerisnotavailable),readacrosstotherighthandcolumntofindthecorrectionfactor.Multiplyyourdissolvedoxygenmeasurementbythisfactortoobtainacorrectedvalue.UsingtheConversionChartsTo44TheMeaningofPercentSaturationRiversthatconsistentlyhaveadissolvedoxygenvalueof90percentorhigherareconsideredhealthy,unlessthewatersaresupersaturatedduetoculturaleutrophication.Riversbelow90percentsaturationmayhavelargeamountsofoxygen-demandingmaterials,i.e.organicwastes.TheMeaningofPercentSaturat45BiochemicalOxygenDemand(BOD)Whenorganicmatterdecomposes,itisfeduponbyaerobicbacteria.Inthisprocess,organicmatterisbrokendownandoxidized(combinedwithoxygen).Biochemicaloxygendemandisameasureofthequantityofoxygenusedbythesemicroorganismsintheaerobicoxidationoforganicmatter.BiochemicalOxygenDemand(BOD46BiochemicalOxygenDemand(BOD)Whenaquaticplantsdie,theyarefeduponbyaerobicbacteria.Theinputofnutrientsintoariver,suchasnitratesandphosphates,stimulatesplantgrowth.Eventually,moreplantgrowthleadstomoreplantdecay.Nutrients,then,canbeaprimecontributortohighbiochemicaloxygendemandinrivers.BiochemicalOxygenDemand(BOD47SourcesofOrganicMatterTherearenaturalsourcesoforganicmaterialwhichincludeorganicmatterenteringlakesandriversfromswamps,bogs,andvegetationalongthewater,particularlyleaffall.Therearealsohumansourcesoforganicmaterial.Whentheseareidentifiablepointsofdischargeintoriversandlakes,theyarecalledpointsources.SourcesofOrganicMatterThere48PointSourcesofOrganicMatterPointsourcesoforganicpollutioninclude:pulpandpapermills;meat-packingplants;foodprocessingindustries;wastewatertreatmentplants.PointSourcesofOrganicMatte49Non-pointSourcesofOrganicMatterUrbanrunoffofrainandmeltingsnowthatcarriessewagefromillegalsanitarysewerconnectionsintostormdrains;petwastesfromstreetsandsidewalks;nutrientsfromlawnfertilizers;leaves,grassclippings,andpaperfromresidentialareas;Agriculturalrunoffthatcarriesnutrients,likenitrogenandphosphates,fromfields;Runofffromanimalfeedlotsthatcarriesfecalmaterialintorivers.Non-pointSourcesofOrganicM50ChangesinAquaticLifeInriverswithhighBODlevels,muchoftheavailabledissolvedoxygenisconsumedbyaerobicbacteria,robbingotheraquaticorganismsoftheoxygentheyneedtolive.Organismsthataremoretolerantoflowerdissolvedoxygenmayappearandbecomenumerous,suchascarp,midgelarvae,andsewageworms.Organismsthatareintolerantoflowoxygenlevels,suchascaddisflylarvae,mayflynymphs,andstoneflynymphs,willnotsurvive.ChangesinAquaticLifeInrive51CauseandEffectAsorganicpollutionincreases,theecologicallystableandcomplexrelationshipspresentinwaterscontainingahighdiversityoforganismsisreplacedbyalowdiversityofpollution-tolerantorganisms.CauseandEffectAsorganicpol52

Fig.21-4,p.4978ppmBiologicaloxygendemandDissolvedoxygen(ppm)Typesoforganisms8ppmRecoveryZoneSepticZoneDecompositionZoneCleanZoneFishabsent,fungi,sludgeworms,bacteria(anaerobic)Trashfish(carp,gar,leeches)CleanNormalcleanwaterorganisms(Trout,perch,bass,mayfly,stonefly)Normalcleanwaterorganisms(Trout,perch,bass,mayfly,stonefly)CleanZoneTrashfish(carp,gar,leeches) Fig.21-4,p.4978ppmBiologi53pHWatercontainsbothH+(hydrogen)ionsandOH-(hydroxyl)ions.ThepHtestmeasurestheH+ionconcentrationofliquidsandsubstances.pHWatercontainsbothH+(hydr54ChangesinpHItisimportanttorememberthatforeveryoneunitchangeonthepHscale,thereisapproximatelyaten-foldchangeinhowacidicorbasicthesampleis.TheaveragepHofrainfallovermuchofthenortheasternUnitedStatesis4.3,orroughlytentimesmoreacidicthannormalrainfallof5.0-5.6.LakesofpH4(acidic)areroughly100timesmoreacidicthanlakesofpH6.ChangesinpHItisimportantt55Human-CausedChangesinpHIntheU.S.,thepHofnaturalwaterisusuallybetween6.5and8.5,althoughwidevariationscanoccur.Increasedamountsofnitrogenoxide(NOx)andsulfurdioxide(SO-2),primarilyfromautomobileandcoal-firedpowerplantemissions,areconvertedtonitricacidandsulfuricacidintheatmosphere.Human-CausedChangesinpHInt56AcidNeutralizationAcidrainisresponsibleforthousandsoflakesineasternCanada,northeasternUnitedStates,Sweden,andFinlandbecomingacidic.Iflimestoneispresent,thealkaline(basic)limestoneneutralizestheeffecttheacidsmighthaveonlakesandstreams.Theareashardesthitbyacidrainandsnowaredownwindofurban/industrialareasanddonothaveanylimestonetoreducetheacidityofthewater.AcidNeutralizationAcidraini57ChangesinAquaticLifeChangesinthepHvalueofwaterareimportanttomanyorganisms.MostorganismshaveadaptedtolifeinwaterofaspecificpHandmaydieifitchangesevenslightly.ThishashappenedtobrooktroutinsomestreamsintheNortheast.ChangesinAquaticLifeChanges58pHExtremesAtextremelyhighorlowpHvalues(e.g.,9.6or4.5)thewaterbecomesunsuitableformostorganisms.Forexample,immaturestagesofaquaticinsectsandyoungfishareextremelysensitivetopHvaluesbelow5.Veryacidicwaterscanalsocauseheavymetals,suchascopperandaluminum,tobereleasedintothewater.pHExtremesAtextremelyhigho59NitratesNitrogenisamuchmoreabundantnutrientthanphosphorusinnature.Blue-greenalgae,theprimaryalgaeofalgalblooms,areabletouseN2andconvertitintoformsofnitrogenthatplantscantakeupthroughtheirrootsanduseforgrowth:ammonia(NH3)andnitrate(NO3-).NitratesNitrogenisamuchmor60NitratesHowdoaquaticanimalsobtainthenitrogentheyneedtoformproteins?theyeithereataquaticplantsandconvertplantproteinstospecificanimalproteins,or,theyeatotheraquaticorganismswhichfeeduponplants.NitratesHowdoaquaticanimals61NitratesAsaquaticplantsandanimalsdie,bacteriabreakdownlargeproteinmoleculesintoammonia.Ammoniaisthenoxidized(combinedwithoxygen)byspecializedbacteriatoformnitrites(NO2)andnitrates(NO-3).Thesebacteriagetenergyformetabolismfromoxidation.NitratesAsaquaticplantsand62NitratesExcretionsofaquaticorganismsareveryrichinammonia,althoughtheamountofnitrogentheyaddtowatersisusuallysmall.Duckandgeese,however,contributeaheavyloadofnitrogen(fromexcrement)inareaswheretheyareplentiful.algaeintoammoniaandnitrates.NitratesExcretionsofaquatic63EutrophicationEutrophicationpromotesmoreplantgrowthanddecay,whichinturnincreasesbiochemicaloxygendemand.However,unlikephosphorus,nitrogenrarelylimitsplantgrowth,soplantsarenotassensitivetoincreasesinammoniaandnitratelevels.EutrophicationEutrophicationp64SourcesofNitratesSewageisthemainsourceofnitratesaddedbyhumanstoriversandlakes.Septicsystemsarecommoninruralareas.Inproperlyfunctioningsepticsystems,soilparticlesremovenutrientslikenitratesandphosphatesbeforetheyreachgroundwater.SourcesofNitratesSewageist65SourcesofNitratesWhensepticsystemdrainfieldsareplacedtooclosetothewatertable,nutrientsandbacteriaareabletopercolatedownintothegroundwaterwheretheymaycontaminatedrinkingwatersupplies.Septictanksmustalsobeemptiedperiodically,tofunctionproperly.SourcesofNitratesWhenseptic66ProblemswithNitrateContaminatedWaterWatercontaininghighnitratelevelscancauseaseriousconditioncalledmethemoglobinemia(met-hemo-glo-bin-emia),ifitisusedforinfantmilkformula.Thisconditionpreventsthebaby'sbloodfromcarryingoxygen;hencethenickname"bluebaby"syndrome.ProblemswithNitrateContamin67WaterTemperatureThewatertemperatureofariverisveryimportantforwaterquality.Manyofthephysical,biological,andchemicalcharacteristicsofariveraredirectlyaffectedbytemperature.WaterTemperatureThewatertem68TemperatureInfluencestheamountofoxygenthatcanbedissolvedinwater;therateofphotosynthesisbyalgaeandlargeraquaticplants;themetabolicratesofaquaticorganisms;thesensitivityoforganismstotoxicwastes,parasites,anddiseases.Remember,coolwatercanholdmoreoxygenthanwarmwater,becausegasesaremoreeasilydissolvedincoolwater.TemperatureInfluencestheamou69Human-CausedChangesinTemperatureThermalpollutionisanincreaseinwatertemperaturecausedbyaddingrelativelywarmwatertoabodyofwater.Industries,suchasnuclearpowerplants,maycausethermalpollutionbydischargingwaterusedtocoolmachinery.Thermalpollutionmayalsocomefromstormwaterrunningoffwarmedurbansurfaces,suchasstreets,sidewalks,andparkinglots.Human-CausedChangesinTemper70HumanTemperaturePeoplealsoaffectwatertemperaturebycuttingdowntreesthathelpshadetheriver,exposingthewatertodirectsunlight.Soilerosioncanalsocontributetowarmerwatertemperatures.Soilerosionraiseswatertemperaturesbecauseitincreasestheamountofsuspendedsolidscarriedbytheriver,makingthewatercloudy(turbid).Cloudywaterabsorbsthesun'srays,causingwatertemperaturetorise.HumanTemperaturePeoplealso71ChangesinAquaticLifeAswatertemperaturerises,therateofphotosynthesisandplantgrowthalsoincreases.Moreplantsgrowanddie.Asplantsdie,theyaredecomposedbybacteriathatconsumeoxygen.Therefore,whentherateofphotosynthesisisincreased,theneedforoxygeninthewater(BOD)isalsoincreased.ChangesinAquaticLifeAswate72HotAnimalsThemetabolicrateoforganismsalsoriseswithincreasingwatertemperatures,resultinginevengreateroxygendemand.Thelifecyclesofaquaticinsectstendtospeedupinwarmwater.Animalsthatfeedontheseinsectscanbenegativelyaffected,particularlybirdsthatdependoninsectsemergingatkeyperiodsduringtheirmigratoryflights.HotAnimalsThemetabolicrate73TemperatureAdaptationsMostaquaticorganismshaveadaptedtosurvivewithinarangeofwatertemperatures.Someorganismsprefercoolerwater,suchastrout,stoneflynymphs,whileothersthriveunderwarmerconditions,suchascarpanddragonflynymphs.Asthetemperatureofariverincreases,coolwaterspecieswillbereplacedbywarmwaterorganisms.TemperatureAdaptationsMostaq74TemperatureandToxicityTemperaturealsoaffectsaquaticlife'ssensitivitytotoxicwastes,parasites,anddisease.Thermalpollutionmaycausefishtobecomemorevulnerabletodisease,eitherduetothestressofrisingwatertemperaturesortheresultingdecreaseindissolvedoxygen.TemperatureandToxicityTemper75TurbidityTurbidityisameasureoftherelativeclarityofwater:thegreatertheturbidity,themurkierthewater.Turbidityincreasesasaresultofsuspendedsolidsinthewaterthatreducethetransmissionoflight.Suspendedsolidsarevaried,rangingfromclay,silt,andplankton,toindustrialwastesandsewage.TurbidityTurbidityisameasur76SourcesofTurbidityHighturbiditymaybecausedbysoilerosion,wastedischarge,urbanrunoff,abundantbottomfeeders(suchascarp)thatstirupbottomsediments,oralgalgrowth.Thepresenceofsuspendedsolidsmaycausecolorchangesinwater,fromnearlywhitetored-brown,ortogreenfromalgalblooms.SourcesofTurbidityHighturbi77ChangesinAquaticLifeAthigherlevelsofturbidity,waterlosesitsabilitytosupportadiversityofaquaticorganisms.Watersbecomewarmerassuspendedparticlesabsorbheatfromsunlight,causingoxygenlevelstofall(warmwater,lessO2).Photosynthesisdecreasesbecauselesslightpenetratesthewater,causingfurtherdropsinoxygenlevels.Thecombinationofwarmerwater,lesslight,andoxygendepletionmakesitimpossibleforsomeformsofaquaticlifetosurvive.ChangesinAquaticLifeAthigh78SuspendedSolidsSuspendedsolidscanclogfishgills,reducegrowthrates,decreaseresistancetodisease,andpreventeggandlarvaldevelopment.Particlesofsilt,clay,andorganicmaterialscansmothertheeggsoffishandaquaticinsects,aswellassuffocatenewly-hatchedinsectlarvae.Materialthatsettlesintothespacesbetweenrocksmakesthesemicrohabitatsunsuitableformayflynymphs,stoneflynymphs,caddisflylarvae,andotheraquaticinsectslivingthere.SuspendedSolidsSuspendedsoli79FecalColiformBacteriaFecalcoliformbacteriaarefoundinthefecesofhumansandotherwarm-bloodedanimals.Thesebacteriacanenterriversdirectlyorfromagriculturalandstormrunoffcarryingwastesfrombirdsandmammals,andfromhumansewagedischargedintothewater.FecalColiformBacteriaFecalc80PathogenicOrganismsFecalcoliformbythemselvesarenotdangerous(pathogenic).Fecalcoliformbacterianaturallyoccurinthehumandigestivetract,andaidinthedigestionoffood.Ininfectedindividuals,pathogenicorganismsarefoundalongwithfecalcoliformbacteria.PathogenicOrganismsFecalcoli81PresenceofBothIffecalcoliformcountsarehigh(over200colonies/100mlofwatersample)intheriver,thereisagreaterchancethatpathogenicorganismsarealsopresent.Diseasesandillnesssuchastyphoidfever,hepatitis,gastroenteritis,dysentery,andearinfectionscanbecontractedinwaterswithhighfecalcoliformcounts.PresenceofBothIffecalcoli82Whattomonitor?Pathogensarerelativelyscarceinwater,makingthemdifficultandtime-consumingtomonitordirectly.Instead,fecalcoliformlevelsaremonitored,becauseofthecorrelationbetweenfecalcoliformcountsandtheprobabilityofcontractingadiseasefromthewater.Whattomonitor?Pathogensare83MunicipalMonitoringSanitarywastes(fromtoilets,washers,andsinks)flowthroughsanitarysewersandaretreatedatthewastewatertreatmentplant.Stormsewerscarryrainandsnowmeltfromstreets,anddischargeuntreatedwaterdirectlyintorivers.Heavyrainsandmeltingsnowwashanimalwastesfromsidewalksandstreetsandmaywashfecalcoliformintothestormsewers.MunicipalMonitoringSanitaryw84StandardsStandards85PhosphorusPhosphorusisusuallypresentinnaturalwatersasphosphate.Organicphosphateisapartoflivingplantsandanimals,theirby-products,andtheirremains.Inorganicphosphatesareionsandarebondedtosoilparticles;therearesomephosphatespresentinlaundrydetergents.PhosphorusPhosphorusisusuall86PhosphorusisessentialPhosphorusisaplantnutrientneededforgrowth,andafundamentalelementinthemetabolicreactionsofplantsandanimals.Plantgrowthislimitedbytheamountofphosphorusavailable.Inmostwaters,phosphorusfunctionsasa"growth-limiting"factorbecauseitisusuallypresentinverylowconcentrations.PhosphorusisessentialPhospho87PhosphorusisscarceThenaturalscarcityofphosphoruscanbeexplainedbyitsattractiontoorganicmatterandsoilparticles.Anyunattachedor“free"phosphorus,intheformofinorganicphosphates,israpidlytakenupbyalgaeandlargeraquaticplants.Becausealgaeonlyrequiresmallamountsofphosphorustolive,excessphosphoruscausesextensivealgalgrowthcalled"blooms."PhosphorusisscarceThenatura88EutrophicationMostoftheeutrophicationoccurringtodayishuman-caused(culturaleutrophication).Phosphorusfromnaturalsourcesgenerallybecomestrappedinbottomsedimentsorisrapidlytakenupbyaquaticplants.Forestfiresandfalloutfromvolcaniceruptionsarenaturaleventsthatcauseeutrophication.EutrophicationMostoftheeutr89SourcesofPhosphorusPhosphoruscomesfromseveralsources:humanwastes,animalwastes,industrialwastes,andhumandisturbanceofthelandanditsvegetation.Sewageeffluent(outflow)shouldnotcontainmorethan1mg/LphosphorusaccordingtotheU.S.EPA.SourcesofPhosphorusPhosphoru90SourcesofPStormsewerssometimescontainillegalconnectionstosanitarysewers.Sewagefromtheseconnectionscanbecarriedintowaterwaysbyrainfallandmeltingsnow.Phosphorus-containinganimalwastessometimesfindtheirwayintoriversandlakesintherunofffromfeedlotsandbarnyards.SourcesofPStormsewerssomet91ErosionisasourceSoilerosioncontributesphosphorustorivers.Theremovalofnaturalvegetationforfarmingorconstructionexposessoiltotheerodingactionofrainandmeltingsnow.Drainingswampsandmarshesforfarmlandorconstructionprojectsreleasesphosphorusthathasremaineddormantinyearsofaccumulatedorganicdeposits.