2015年6月四六级冲刺讲义

光打在你的脸上。一个月后你有你人生中重要的一件事—四级英语！它是你大的见了，谁都可以成为自己的。：语言测试学博士 .cn/caotianxiaowd，新浪：@老曹考

9:409:55.15分钟10:00开始，10:35结束。SectionAYearsago,doctorsoftensaidthatpainwasanormalpartoflife.Inparticular,whenolderpatients47ofpain,theyweretolditwasanaturalpartofagingandtheywouldhavetolearntolivewithit.Timeshavechanged.Todaywetakepain48Indeed,painisnowconsideredthefifthvitalsign,asimportantasbloodpressure,temperature,breathingrateandpulsein49aswell-being.Weknowthatchronic(慢性的)paincandisrupt(扰乱)a’slife,causingproblemsthat50frommissedworktodepression.That’swhyagrowingnumberofhospitalsnowdependuponphysicianswho51inpainmedicine.Notonlydoweevaluatethecauseofthepain,whichcanhelpustreatthepainbetter,butwealsohelpprovidecomprehensivetherapyfordepressionandotherpsychologicalandsocial52relatedtochronicpain.Suchcomprehensivetherapyoften53theworkofsocialworkers,psychiatrists(心理医生)andpsychologists,aswellasspecialistsinpainmedicine.Thismodern54forpainmanagementhasledtoawealthofinnovativetreatmentswhicharemoreeffectiveandwithfewersideeffectsthaneverbefore.Decadesago,therewereonlya55numberofdrugsavailable,andmanyofthemcaused56sideeffectsinolderpeople,includingdizzinessandfatigue.Thiscreatedadouble-edgedsword:themedicationshelpedrelievethepainbutcausedotherproblemsthatcouldbeworsethanthepainitself.2A) B) C)K)D) com M) N)G)O)H)填空的原因，在做第一步之前我先把4级选词填空中出现频率最高的后缀全部列举出来：在中只要出现ly一定为副词，这是频率 result结果 M)respect（尊重） issuesB)involves动词: 动词进行时：I)determining决定，确定 动词过去式：J)limited限制L)comined抱怨E)可能的动词单三：B)involves形容词：C)significantH)magnificentJ)limited有限的 seriously严肃的K) whenolderpatients47ofpainpatientsof，确定应填入一个动词；后半句为theyweretold告诉我们填入过去时动词，满足此题的单词分别是：J)limitedL)cominedE)relieved，根据本句中的pain（痛苦确定L)comined（抱怨）与pain（痛苦）的感情方向一致。wetakepain48take,, seriously严肃的 ，所以满足的单词有I)determiningN)prompting，2题：causingproblemsthat50frommissedworktodepression.fromto,所以填入动词单配这两个介O)specialize，D)range，两个都不认识，先放着不管，待会再结合处理题：nowdependuponphysicianswho51inpainmedicineininphysicianswho，人作主语，并且是复数，所以必须是动词，满足的单词依然是O)specialize，D)range，我们可以将50和51题全部填入O)specialize，结果是必对一道，有时候放弃是为了得到题：otherpsychologicalandsocial52，前面是psychologicalandsocial这两个形容词，空内应该填入名词，otherF)issuesB)involves，二选一，别着急，让我们看下一题.Suchcomprehensivetherapyoften53 workoftenSuch题：Thismodern54forpainmanagementmodernA)result结果M)respect（尊重for,M)respect（尊重）for，所以也就排除了它作为动词的可能性，所以现在知道我为什么将51题的满足单词固定为O)specialize，D)range了吗？题：therewereonlya55numberofdrugsavailable,numbera，我们确定天形容词修饰number,满足的有C)significantH)magnificentJ)limited有限的，，看到了only了吗？答案是limited题：andmanyofthemcaused56sideeffectssideeffects，填入形容词来修饰吧！满足的只C)significantH)magnificentJ)，21492121，两道可以对一道。：一.把握文章中心大意 mainidea归纳总结全文vs.找二.把握文章重要细节 vs.定位+对应三.推理AB，BA，数量动态均等。A的数量急剧上升，BA30个，B3Q：Whatconclusioncanbedrawnfromthepassage? vs.WhatconclusioncanbedrawnfromtheAnxiety,thoughunavoidable,canbecopedChildren’sanxietyhasbeenenormouslyChildren’sanxietycanbeeliminatedwithmoreparentalAnxiety,ifproperlycontrolled,mayhelp eMakeexercisepartofyourdailyroutine.Itwillhelpyoucopewithyourownanxietiesandprovideagoodmodelforyourkids.Sometimesanxietyisunavoidable.Butitdoesn’thavetoruinyourlife.Welearnfromthepassagethat thepopulationinthePoconoareaiswildlifeinthePoconoareaisdyingoutthesecurityofthePoconoresidentsisbeingfarmlandsinthePoconoareaareshrinkingThestreams,lakes,meadows(草地),mountainridgesandsthatmakethePoconosanidealceforblackbearshavealsoattractedmorepeopletotheregion.Openspacesarethreatenedbynsforhousingestatesandimportanthabitats(栖息地)areendangeredbyhighwayconstruction.ToprotectthePoconosnaturalbeautyfromirresponsibledevelopment,theNatureConservancy(大自然保护)namedtheareaoneofAmerica’s“LastGreatces”.语义题vs.应景含义D)arecapableofachievingperfectresultsinwhatevertheyC)demandotherstogeteverythingabsoluypaytoomuchattentiontodetailsonlytolosetheirmajorcaughtupmadethebestWhatdotheenvironmentalistsmeanbysaying“Notsofast”(Line1,Para.OilexploitationtakesalongTheoildrillingshouldbeDon’tbetooDon’texpectfast四.把握作者态度Passagewhichconsumerslargelydeterminewhatshallbeproducedbyspendingtheirmoneywhichconsumerslargelydeterminewhatshallbeproducedbyspendingtheirmoneyinthe ceforthoseandservicesthattheywantTheAmericaneconomicsystemisorganizedaroundabasicallyprivate-enterprise,market-orientedeconomyhowthesegoodsandservicesareproduced.Thus,inthehowthesegoodsandservicesareproduced.Thus,intheAmericaneconomicsystemitisthedemandofconsumers,coupledwiththedesireofbusinessmenizeprofitsandthedesireofindividualsizees,thattogetherdeterminewhatshallbeproducedandhowresourcesareusedtoproduceandrespondedtobyAnimportantfactorinamarket-orientedeconomyisthemechanismbywhichconsumerdemandscanbepriceistheregulatingmechanismintheAmericaneconomicofproductiveofproductiveresourcesbutalsocertainrights,includingtherighttodeterminethepriceofaproductortomakecontractwithanotherprivateIntheAmericaneconomy,theconceptofprivatepropertyembracesnotonlytheInline8,paragraph1,"thedesireofindividualstoize es"means Americansareneversatisfiedwith Americanstendtooverstate Americanswanttohave esAmericanswanttoincreasethepurchasingpowerof Thefirsttwosentencesinthesecondparagraphlusthat producerscansatisfytheconsumersbymechanizedconsumerscanexpresstheirdemandsthroughproducersdecidethepricesofsupplyanddemandregulateAccordingtothepassage,aprivate-enterpriseeconomyischaracterizedby privatepropertyandrightsmanpowerandnaturalresourcesownershipofproductivecontractsandpricesThepassageismainlyabout howAmericangoodsarehowAmericanconsumersbuytheirhowAmericaneconomicsystemhowAmericanbusinessmenmaketheirPassageautomaticcreditinstores,restaurants,and s,athome,acrossthecountry,automaticcreditinstores,restaurants,and s,athome,acrossthecountry,andevenabroad,andtheymakebankingservicesavailableasTheygivetheirMoreandmoreofthesecreditcardscanbereadautomatically,makingitpossibletowithdrawordepositmoneyinscatteredlocations,whetherornotthelocalbranchbankisopen.Formanyofus,the"cashlesssociety"isnotonthehorizon—it'salreadyhere.WhileWhilecomputersoffertheseconveniencestoconsumers,theyhavemanyadvantagesforsellerstoo.Electroniccashregisterscandomuchmorethansimplyringupsales.Theycankeepawiderangeofrecords,includingwhosoldwhen,andtowhom.Thisinformationallowsbusinessmentokeeptrackoftheirlistofgoodsbyshowingwhichitemsbeingsoldandhowfasttheyaremoving.Decisionstoreorderorreturngoodsrscanthenbemade.Atthetimethesecomputersrecordwhichhoursarebusiestandwhichemployeesarethemostefficient,staffingassignmentstobemadeaccordingly.AndtheyalsoidentifypreferredcustomersfornelComputersarereliedonbymanufacturersforsimilarreasons.Computer-yzedmarketingreportscanhelptodecidewhichproductstoemphasizenow,whichtodevelopforthefuture,andwhichtodrop.Computerskeeptrackofgoodsinstock,ofrawmaterialsonhand,andevenoftheproductionprocesscessorprocessors,bringbetterandmoreefficientservicestoconsumersthroughtheuseofNumerousothercommercialenterprises,fromtheaterstomagazinepublishers,fromgasandelectricutilitiestoAccordingtothepassage,thecreditcardenablesitsownerto withdrawasmuchmoneyfromthebankasheobtainmoreconvenientservicesthanotherpeopleenjoygreatertrustfromthecashmoneywhereverhewishesFromthelastsentenceofthefirstparagraphwelearnthat inthefuturealltheAmericanswillusecreditcreditcardsaremainlyusedintheUnitedStatenowadaysmanyAmericansdonotpayinitisnowmoreconvenienttousecreditcardsthanThephrase"ringupsales"(line2,paragraph2)mostprobablymeans makeanorderofrecordsalesonacashcallthesaleskeeptrackofthegoodsinWhatisthispassagemainlyApproachestothecommercialuseofConveniencesbroughtaboutbycomputersinSignificanceofautomationincommercialAdvantagesofcreditcardsinPassagetototheirfulladultpotential,theireducationmustbeadaptedtothoseExceptionalchildrenaredifferentinsomesignificantwayfromothersofthesameage.Forthesechildrento anddevelopment.Anditisinthepublicschoolsthatwefindthefullexpressionofsociety'sunderstanding—theknowledge,hopes,andfearsthatarepassedontothenextgeneration.Althoughwefocusontheneedsofexceptionalchildren,wefindourselvesdescribingtheirenvironmentaswell.Whiletheleadingactoronthestagecapturesourattention,weareawareoftheimportanceofthe yersandconditions,deservetheopportunitytofullydeveloptheireducationoverthepastthreedecadesindicatesthestrongfeelinginoursocietythatconditions,deservetheopportunitytofullydeveloptheireducationoverthepastthreedecadesindicatesthestrongfeelinginoursocietythatallcitizens,whatevertheirThegreatinterestinexceptionalchildrenshowninofeachchildtoreceivehelpinlearningtothelimitsofhisorhercapacity,whetherthatcapacitybeofeachchildtoreceivehelpinlearningtothelimitsofhisorhercapacity,whetherthatcapacitybesmallorThatconceptimplieseducationalopportunityforallchildren—theadaptinginstructiontochildrenwhoareexceptional,tothosewhocannotprofitsubstantiallyfromregularcourtdecisionshaveadaptinginstructiontochildrenwhoareexceptional,tothosewhocannotprofitsubstantiallyfromregularInparagrah2,theauthorcitestheexampleoftheleadingactoronthestagetoshowthat thegrowthofexceptionalchildrenhasmuchtodowiththeirfamilyandtheexceptionalchildrenaremoreinfluencedbytheirfamiliesthannormalchildrenexceptionalchildrenarethekeyinterestofthefamilyandtheneedsofthesocietyweighmuchheavierthantheneedsoftheexceptionalThereasonthattheexceptionalchildrenreceivesomuchconcernineducationisthat theyareexpectedtobeleadersofthethey eaburdenofthetheyshouldfullydeveloptheirdisabledchildrendeservespecialThispassagemainlydealswith thedifferencesofchildrenintheirlearningthedefinitionofexceptionalchildreninmodernthespecialeducationalprogramsforexceptionalthenecessityofadaptingeducationtoexceptionalFromthispassagewelearnthattheeducationalconcernforexceptionalchildren isnowenjoyinglegaldisagreeswiththetraditionofthewasclearlystatedbythecountry'swillexertgreatinfluenceovercourtPassagespots.Unlikemostoftheworld'svolcanoes,theyarenotalwaysfoundattheboundariesofthegreatdrifting testhatmakeuptheearth'ssurface;onthecontrary,manyofthemliedeepinthespots.Unlikemostoftheworld'svolcanoes,theyarenotalwaysfoundattheboundariesofthegreatdrifting testhatmakeuptheearth'ssurface;onthecontrary,manyofthemliedeepintheinteriorofa te.Mostofthehotspotsonlyslowly,andinsomecasesthemovementofthetespastthemhaslefttrailsofdeadvolcanoes.Thehotspotsandtheirvolcanictrailsaretonesthatmarkthepassageofthetes.featuresthatseemtospantheoceanareremindersofwherethetwocontinentswereonceTherelativeoffeaturesthatseemtospantheoceanareremindersofwherethetwocontinentswereonceTherelativeofthe Itisnotpossibletodeterminewhethercannotreadilybetranslatedintomotionwithrespecttotheearth'sThecomplementarycoastlinesandcertainFromanysisofthehot-spotpopulationitappearsthattheAfricanteisstationaryandthatithasnotmovedduringthepast30millionyears.developsdeepfissures(cracks);inatleastafewcasesthedevelopsdeepfissures(cracks);inatleastafewcasesthecontinentmaybreakentirelyalongsomeofthesefissures,Asthedomegrows,thatthehotspotinitiatestheformationofanewThusjustasearlierthatthehotspotinitiatestheformationofanewTheauthorbelievesthat themotionofthetescorrespondstothatoftheearth'sthegeologicaltheoryaboutdriftingteshasbeenprovedtobethehotspotsandthetesmoveslowlyinoppositethemovementofhotspotsprovesthecontinentsaremovingThatAfricaandSouthAmericawereoncejoinedcanbededucedfromthefactthat thetwocontinentsarestillmovinginoppositetheyhavebeenfoundtosharecertaingeologicaltheAfricanteshasbeenstablefor30millionover100hotspotsarescatteredallaroundtheThehot-spottheorymayproveusefulinexining thestructureoftheAfricantherevivalofdeadthemobilityofthetheformationofnewThepassageismainlyabout thefeaturesofvolcanictheimportanceofthetheoryaboutdriftingthesignificanceofhotspotsingeophysicaltheprocessoftheformationofPassagetonearbalanceattheageoftonearbalanceattheageofmaturity,andamong70-year-oldstherearetwiceasmanywomenasThereareabout105malesbornforevery100females,butthisratioButthefirsttime,therewillbeanexcessofboysinthosecrucialyearswhentheyaresearchingforamate.Moreimportant,anotherchancefornaturalselectionhasbeenremoved.Fiftyyearsago,thechanceofababy(particularlyaboybaby)survivingdependedonitsweight.Akilogramtoolightortooheavymeantalmostcertaindeath.Todayitmakesalmostnodifference.Sincemuchofthevariationisduetogenes,onemoreagentofevolutionhasgone.Again,Thereisanotherwaytocommitevolutionarysuicide:stayalive,buthavefewerchildren.Fewpeopleareasfertileasinthepast.Exceptinsomereligiouscommunities,veryfewwomenhas15children.NowadaysthenumberofAgain,betweenpeopleandtheopportunityfornaturalselectiontotakeadvantageofithavelost80%ofitspowerinupper-middle-betweenpeopleandtheopportunityfornaturalselectiontotakeadvantageofithavelost80%ofitspowerinupper-middle-comparedtothemediocrityoftoday—everyonebeingthesameinsurvivalandnumberofoffspring—meansthatnaturalselectionForus,thismeansthatevolutionisover;thebiologicalUtopiahasarrived.Strangely,ithasinvolvedlittlephysicalchange.Nootherspeciesfillssomanycesinnature.Butinthepast100,000years—eventhepast100years—ourliveshavebeentransformedbutourbodieshavenot.Wedidnotevolve,becausemachinesandsocietydiditforus.asatsomethingwhollybeyondhisDarwinhadaphrasetodescribethoseignorantofevolution:they"lookatanasatsomethingwhollybeyondhisDarwinhadaphrasetodescribethoseignorantofevolution:they"lookatanorganicbeingasasavagelooksataWhatusedtobethedangerinbeingamanaccordingtothefirstAlackofAfierceAlowersurvivalAdefectiveWhatdoestheexampleofWealthypeopletendtohavefewerchildrenthanpoorNaturalselectionhardlyworksamongtherichandtheThemiddleclasspopulationis80%smallerthanthatoftheisoneofthecountrieswithaveryhighbirthrate.Theauthorarguesthatourbodieshavestoppedevolving lifehasbeenimprovedbytechnologicalthenumberoffemalebabieshasbeenourspecieshasreachedthehigheststageofthedifferencebetweenwealthandpovertyisWhichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleforthe[A]RationChangesinHumanWaysofContinuingMan'sTheEvolutionaryFutureofHumanEvolutionGoingPassageThatexperiencesinfluencesubsequentbehaviourisevidenceofanobviousbutneverthelessremarkableactivitycalledremembering.Learningcouldnotoccurwithoutthefunctionpopularlynamedmemory.Constantpracticehassuchaneffectonmemoryastoleadtoskillfulperformanceonthepiano,torecitationofapoem,andeventoreadingandunderstandingthesewords.So-calledinligentbehaviourdemandsmemory,rememberingbeingaprimaryrequirementforreasoning.Theabilitytosolveanyproblemoreventorecognizethataproblemexistsdependsonmemory.Typically,thedecisiontocrossastreetisbasedonrememberingmanyearlierexperiences.Practice(orreview)tendstobuildandmaintainmemoryforataskorforanylearnedmaterial.Overaperiodofnopracticewhathasbeenlearnedtendstobeforgotten;andtheadaptiveconsequencesmaynotseemobvious.Yet,dramaticinstancesofsuddenforgettingcanbeseentobeadaptive.Inthissense,theabilitytoforgetcanbeinterpretedtohavesurvivedthroughaprocessofnaturalselectioninanimals.Indeed,whenone'smemoryofanemotionallypainfulitdifficulttounderstandhowthecommonlygradualprocessofforgettingsurvivednaturalselection.Inthinkingabouttheevolutionofmemorytogetherwithallitspossibleaspects,itishelpfultoconsiderwhatwouldtostandout,providingcluesforinferringduration.Withoutforgetting,adaptiveabilitywouldsuffer,forexample,learnedbehaviourthatmighthavebeencorrectadecadeagomaynolongerbe.Casesarerecordedofpeoplewho(byordinarystandards)forgotsolittlethattheireverydayactivitieswerefullofconfusion.Thisforgettingseemstoservethatsurvivaloftheindividualandthespecies.Anotherlineofthoughtassumesamemorystoragesystemoflimitedcapacitythatprovidesadaptiveflexibilityspecificallythroughforgetting.Inthisview,continualadjustmentsaremadebetweenlearningormemorystorage(input)andforgetting(output).Indeed,thereisevidencethattherateatwhichindividualsforgetisdirectlyrelatedtohowmuchtheyhavelearned.Suchdataoffersgrosssupportofcontemporarymodelsofmemorythatassumeaninput-outputFromtheevolutionarypointofview, forgettingforlackofpracticetendstobeobviouslyifagetsveryforgetfulallofasuddenhemustbeverythegradualprocessofforgettingisanindicationofanindividual'ssuddenforgettingmaybringaboutadaptiveAccordingtothepassage,ifaneverforgets, hewouldsurvivehewouldhavealotofhisabilitytolearnwouldbetheevolutionofmemorywouldFromthelastparagraphweknowthat forgetfulnessisaresponsetothememorystoragesystemisanexactlybalancedinput-outputmemoryisacompensationforthecapacityofamemorystoragesystemislimitedbecauseforgettingInthisarticle,theauthortriestointerpretthefunction [B][C] [D]PassageWhenWhenanewmovementinartattainsacertainfashion,itisadvisabletofindoutwhatitsadvocatesareaimingat,for,howeverfarfetchedandunreasonabletheirprinciplesmayseemtoday,itispossiblethatinyearstocometheymayberegardedasnormal.WithregardtoFuturistpoetry,however,thecaseisratherdifficult,forwhateverFuturistpoetrymaybe—evenadmittingthatthetheoryonwhichitisbasedmayberight—itcanhardlybeclassedasLiwords,unhamperedbystops,orqualifyingadjectives,orfiniteWemustpouroutalargestreamofThis,inbrief,iswhattheFuturistsays:foracentury,pastconditionsoflifehavebeenconditionallyspeedingup,tillnowweliveinaworldofnoiseandandspeed.Consequently,ourfeelings,thoughtsandemotionshaveundergoneacorrespondingchange.words,unhamperedbystops,orqualifyingadjectives,orfiniteWemustpouroutalargestreamofInsteadofdescribingsoundswemustmakeupwordsthatimitatethem;wemustusemanysizesoftypeanddifferentcoloredinksonthesamepage,andshortenorlengthenwordsatwill.CertainlyCertainlytheirdescriptionsofbattlesareconfused.ButitisalittleupsettingtoreadintheexnatorynotesthatacertainlinedescribesafightbetweenaTurkishandaBulgarianofficeronabridgeoffwhichtheybothfallintotheriver—andthentofindthatthelineconsistsofthenoiseoftheirfallingandtheweightsoftheofficers:"Pluff!Pluff!Ahundredandeighty-fivenothinkingmancanrefusetoaccepttheirfirstproposition:thatagreatchangeinouremotionallifenothinkingmancanrefusetoaccepttheirfirstproposition:thatagreatchangeinouremotionallifecallsforachangeAlltheThewholequestionisreallythis:haveweessentiallyThispassageis asurveyofnewapproachestoareviewofFuturistaboutmeritsoftheFuturistaboutlawsandrequirementsofliWhenanovelliryideaappears,peopleshouldtry determineitsignoreitsfollowthenewaccepttheFuturistsclaimthatwe increasetheproductionofliusepoetrytorelievemoderndevelopnewmodesofavoidusingadjectivesandTheauthorbelievesthatFuturistpoetry basedonreasonablenewandacceptabletoordinaryindicativeofbasicchangeinhumanmoreofatransientphenomenonthanliPassageWhydosomanyAmericansdistrustwhattheyreadintheirnewspapers?TheAmericanSocietyofNewspaperEditorsistryingtoanswerthispainfulquestion.Theorganizationisdeepintoalongself-ysisknownasthejournalismcredibilityproject.SadSadtosay,thisprojecthasturnedouttobemostlylow-levelfindingsaboutfactualerrorsandspellingandrmistakes,combinedwithlotsofhead-scratchingpuzzlementaboutwhatintheworldthosereadersreallyInotherwords,thereisaconventionalstorylineintheculturethatprovidesabackboneandaInotherwords,thereisaconventionalstorylineintheculturethatprovidesabackboneandaready-madenarrativestructureforotherwiseconfusingThereThereexistsasocialandculturaldisconnectbetweenjournalistsandtheirreaders,whichhelps inwhy"standard tes"ofthenewsroomseemalientomanyreaders.Inarecentsurvey,questionnairesweresentreportersinfivemiddlesizecitiesaroundthecountry,plusonelargemetropolitanarea.Thenresidentsinthesecommunitieswerephonedatrandomandaskedthesamequestions.RepliesshowthatcomparedwithotherAmericans,journalistsaremorelikelytoliveinupscaleneighborhoods,haveinacommunity.dailyclashofworldviewsbetweenreportersandtheirdailyclashofworldviewsbetweenreportersandtheirdiversityprogram,nowfocusednarrowlyonraceandgender,andlookforreporterswhodifferbroadlybyIfitdid,itwouldopenupemployeeswhoseattitudesvastlyannoythecustomers.Thenitsponsorslotsofdiversityprogram,nowfocusednarrowlyonraceandgender,andlookforreporterswhodifferbroadlybyIfitdid,itwouldopenupvalues,values,education,andWhatisthepassagemainlyNeedsofthereadersallovertheCausesofthepublicdisappointmentaboutOriginsofthedecliningnewspaperAimsofajournalismcredibilityTheresultsofthejournalismcredibilityprojectturnedouttobe quitesomewhatveryratherThebasicproblemofjournalistsaspointedoutbythewriterliesintheir workingconventionalworldeducationalDespiteitsefforts,thenewspaperindustrystillcannotsatisfythereadersowingtoits failuretorealizeitsrealtendencytohireannoyinglikelinesstodoinaccurateprejudiceinmattersofraceandPassageAhistoryoflongandeffortlesssuccesscanbeadreadfulhandicap,but,ifproperlyhandled,itmay eadriving.WhentheUnitedStatesenteredjustsuchaglowingperiodaftertheendoftheSecondWorldWar,ithadamarketeightlargerthananycompetitor,givingitsindustriesunparalleledeconomiesofscale.Itsscientistsweretheworld'sbest,itsworkersthemostskilled.AmericaandAmericanswereprosperousbeyondthedreamsoftheEuropeansandAsianswhoseeconomiesthewarhaddestroyed.Itwasinevitablethatthisprimacyshouldhavenarrowedasothercountriesgrewricher.Justasinevitably,theretreatfrompredominanceprovedpainful.Bythemid1980sAmericanshadfoundthemselvesatalossovertheirfadingindustrialcompetitiveness.SomehugeAmericanindustries,suchasconsumerelectronics,hadshrunkorvanishedinthefaceofforeigncompetition.By1987therewasonlyoneAmericanevisionmakerleft,Zenith.(Nowthereisnone:ZenithwasboughtbySouthKorea'sLGElectronicsinJuly.)Foreignmadecarsandtextilesweresweeintothedomesticmarket.America'smachine-toolindustrywasontheropes.Forawhileitlookedasthoughthemakingofsemiconductors,whichAmericahadinventedandwhichsatattheheartofthenewcomputerage,wasgoingtobethenextcasualty.Allofthiscausedacrisisofconfidence.Americansstoppedtakingprosperityforgranted.Theybegantobelievethattheirwayofngbusinesswasfailing,andthattheir eswouldthereforeshortlybegintofallaswell.Themid-1980sbroughtoneinquiryafteranotherintothecausesofAmerica'sindustrialdecline.Theirsometimessensationalfindingswerefilledwithwarningsaboutthegrowingcompetitionfromoverseas.Howthingshavechanged!In1995theUnitedStatescanlookbackonfiveyearsofsolidgrowthwhileJapanhasbeenstruggling.FewAmericansattributethissolelytosuchobviouscausesasadevalueddollarortheturningofthebusinesscycle.Selfdoubthasyieldedtoblindpride."Americanindustryhaschangeditsstructure,hasgoneonadiet,haslearnttobemorequickwitted,"accordingtoRichardCavanagh,executivedeanofHarvard'sKennedySchoolofernment."ItmakesmeproudtobeanAmericanjusttoseehowourbusinessesareimprovingtheirproductivity,"saysStephenMooreoftheCatoInstitute,athinkinWashington,DC.AndWilliamSahlmanoftheHarvardBusinessSchoolbelievesthatpeoplewilllookbackonthisperiodas"agoldenageofbusinessmanagementintheUnitedStates."TheU.S.achieveditspredominanceafterWorldWarIIbecause ithadmadepainstakingeffortstowardsthisitsdomesticmarketwaseighttimeslargerthanthewarhaddestroyedtheeconomiesofmostpotentialtheunparalleledsizeofitsworkhadgivenanimpetustoitsThelossofU.S.predominanceintheworldeconomyinthe1980sismanifestedinthefactthattheAmerican TVindustryhadwithdrawntoitsdomesticsemiconductorindustryhadbeentakenoverbyforeignmachine-toolindustryhadcollapsedaftersuicidalautoindustryhadlostpartofitsdomesticWhatcanbeinferredfromtheItishumannaturetoshiftbetweenself-doubtandblindIntensecompetitionmaycontributetoeconomicTherevivaloftheeconomydependsoninternationalAlonghistoryofsuccessmaypavethewayforfurtherTheauthorseemstobelievetherevivaloftheU.S.economyinthe1990scanbeattributedtothe turningofthebusinessrestructuringofimprovedbusinesssuccessinPassageSpecialisationcanbeseenasaresponsetotheproblemofanincreasingaccumulationofscientificknowledge.Bysplittingupthesubjectmatterintosmallerunits,onemancouldcontinuetohandletheinformationanduseitasthebasisforfurtherresearch.Butspecialisationwasonlyoneofaseriesofrelateddevelopmentsinscienceaffectingtheprocessofcommunication.Anotherwasthegrowingprofessionalisationofscientificactivity.Noclear-cutdistinctioncanbedrawnbetweenprofessionalsandamateursinscience:exceptionscanbefoundtoanyrule.Nevertheless,theword'amateur'doescarryaconnotationthattheconcernedisnotfullyintegratedintothescientificcommunityand,inparticular,maynotfullyshareitsvalues.Thegrowthofspecialisationinthenineteenthcentury,withitsconsequentrequirementofalonger,morecomplextraining,impliedgreaterproblemsforamateurparticipationinscience.Thetrendwasnaturallymostobviousinthoseareasofsciencebasedespeciallyonamathematicalorlaboratorytraining,andcanbeillustratedintermsofthedevelopmentofgeologyintheUnitedKingdom.AcomparisonofBritishgeologicalpublicationsoverthelastcenturyandahalfrevealsnotsimplyanincreasingemphasisontheprimacyofresearch,butalsoachangingdefinitionofwhatconstitutesanacceptableresearchpaper.Thus,inthenineteenthcentury,localgeologicalstudiesrepresentedworthwhileresearchintheirownright;but,inthetwentiethcentury,localstudieshaveincreasingly eacceptabletoprofessionalsonlyiftheyincorporate,andreflecton,thewidergeologicalpicture.Amateurs,ontheotherhand,havetopursuelocalstudiesintheoldway.Theoverallresulthasbeentomakeentrancetoprofessionalgeologicaljournalsharderforamateurs,aresultthathasbeenreindbythewidespreadintroductionofrefereeing,firstbynationaljournalsinthenineteenthcenturyandthenbyseverallocalgeologicaljournalsinthetwentiethcentury.Asalogicalconsequenceofthisdevelopment,separatejournalshavenowappearedaimedmainlytowardseitherprofessionaloramateurreadership.Arathersimilarprocessofdifferentiationhasledtoprofessionalgeologistscomingtogethernationallywithinoneortwospecificsocieties,whereastheamateurshavetendedeithertoremaininlocalsocietiesortocometogethernationallyinadifferentway.Althoughtheproc