戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套笔记

Chapter1IntroductionWhatislinguistics?什么是语言学[A]ThedefinitionoflinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage(对语言进行的科学研究)Processoflinguisticstudy:①Certainlinguisticfactsareobserved,generalizationareformed;②Hypothesesareformulated;③Hypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations;④Alinguistictheoryisconstructed.[B]ThescopeoflinguisticsGenerallinguistics普通语言学:thestudyoflanguageasawhole从整体研究1.Phonetics:thegeneralstudyofthecharacteristicsofspeechsounds(orthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage)(Howspeechsoundsareproducedandclassified)2.Phonology:isessentiallythedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalanguage.(Howsoundsformsystemsandfunctiontoconveymeaning)3.Morphology:thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwords(howmorphemesarecombinedtoformwords)4.Syntax:thestudyofthoserulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformpermissiblesentences(howmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentences)5.Semantics:thestudyofmeaninginabstraction6.Pragmatics:thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseSociolinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyPsycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofthemindAppliedlinguistics:theapplicationoflinguisticsprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearningAnthropologicallinguistics,neurologicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;computationallinguistics[C]Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics①Prescriptivevs.Descriptive规定性与描写性②Synchronicvs.Diachronic共时性与历时性（现代英语多研究共时性）Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime;Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.③Speechandwriting言语与文字Spokenlanguageisprimary,notthewritten④Langueandparole语言和言语ProposedbySwisslinguistsF.deSausse(sociological)Langue:referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity（指一个话语社团所有成员共有的语言系统）Parole:referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse（指语言在实际运用中的实现）⑤Competenceandperformance语言能力与语言运用ProposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomsky(psychological)Competence:theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.（理想的语言使用者关于语言规则方面的知识）Performance:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticscommunication.（这种知识在语言交流中的具体实现）Whatislanguage?什么是语言[A]ThedefinitionoflanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.(语言是一个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。)a)System:combinedtogetheraccordingtorules（根据规则组合在一起）b)Arbitrary:nointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor（语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系）c)Vocal:theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages（所有语言的首要媒介都是声音）d)Human:languageishuman-specific（语言是人类所独有的）[B]Designfeatures(uniqueproperties):thedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication（识别特征是指人类语言区别于任何动物交际系统的本质特征）①Arbitrariness（任意性）Thereisnologicalornaturalconnectionbetweenalinguisticform(eithersoundorword)anditsmeaning.Whilelanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.（意义和语音之间没有什么逻辑的联系；虽然是任意性的，但并非完全任意）a)echoofthesoundsofobjectsoractivities:onomatopoeicwords（拟声词）b)somecompoundwords（某些复合词）②Productivity（能产性，创造性）Phoneme:aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue,itisanabstractunit.（音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位）Allophone:thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素被称为该音位的音位变体）[H]Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,minimalpair（音位对立、互补分布、最小对立体）Phonemiccontrast:whentwophonemescanoccurinthesameenvironmentsintwowordsandtheydistinguishmeaning,they’reinphonemiccontrast.E.g.pin&binà/p/vs./b/rope&robeà/p/vs./b/（要会判断！）Complementarydistribution:twoormorethantwoallophonesofthesamephonemesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecausetheycannotappearatthesametime,oroccurindifferentenvironment,besidestheydonotdistinguishmeaning.Minimalpair:whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Whenagroupofwordscanbedifferentiated,eachonefromtheothers,bychangingonephoneme(alwaysinthesameposition),thenallofthesewordsconstituteaminimalsets.[I]Somerulesinphonology①sequentialrules序列规则Phonotacticsof3consonantsoccurringinonset:如果三个辅音都出现在词首，必须遵循以下三条规则：No1:___/s/第一个音位一定是/s/___voicelessstops:/p/,/t/,/k/第二个音位一定是/p/,/t/,/k/___approximants:/r/,/l/,/w/,/j/第三个音位一定是/r/,/l/,/w/,/j/No2:Theaffricates[t∫],[dз]andthesibilants[s],[z],[θ],[δ]arenottobefollowedbyanothersibilants.②assimilationrules同化规则Co-articulationeffects:theprocessofmakingonesoundalmostatthesametimeasthenextiscalledco-articulation.Assimilation&elisioneffects元音省略Assimilation:twophonemesoccurinsequenceandsomeaspectofonephonemeistakenorcopiedbytheotherE.g.nasalizeavowelwhenitisfollowedbyanasalsound.鼻音化现象③deletionrule/Elision省略规则Definition:theomissionofasoundsegmentwhichwouldbepresentindeliberatepronunciationofawordinisolationE.g.deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant省略词末鼻辅音前的[g]音[J]Suprasegmentalfeatures（超音段特征）①Stress重音Wordstress&sentencestressThestressoftheEnglishcompoundsalwaysonthefirstelement②Tone声调Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjustlikemorphemes.像音素一样可以区别意义Tonelanguage,likeChinese,hasfourtones.汉语就是一种典型的声调语言，有四个音调Level,rise,fall-rise,fall阴平阳平上声去声③Intonation语调Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.English:thefourbasictypesofintonation,orthefourtones四种语调Thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risingtone,andtherise-falltone降调声调将声调升降调Chapter3Morphology形态学[A]ThedefinitionofmorphologyMorphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.（指对词的内部结构以及构词规则的研究）Morpheme:词素themostbasicelementofmeaning.（意义的最基本要素）(Aminimalunitofmeaningorgrammaticalfunction最小的意义单位或者语法功能)[B]Freemorphemes&boundmorphemes（自由词素和黏着词素）Freemorphemes:canstandbythemselvesassinglewordsàLexicalmorphemes[n.a.v]&functionalmorphemes[n.]Boundmorphemes:cannotnormallystandalone,butwhicharetypicallyattachedtoanotherformàDerivationalmorphemes派生词素àaffix词缀(suffix,infix,prefix)+root后缀中缀前缀+词根àInflectionalmorphemes曲折词素à8typesofinflectionalmorphemesinEnglishNoun+-’s,-s[possessive所有格;plural复数]Verb+-s,-ing,-ed,-en[3rdpersonpresentsingular第三人称单数;presentparticiple现在分词;pasttense过去式,pastparticiple过去分词]Adj+-er,-est[comparative比较级;superlative最高级][C]Derivationalvs.Inflectional派生（范畴/语类）和曲折（语法标志）Inflectionalmorphemesneverchangethegrammaticalcategoryofaword只表示语法标志（时态、数、格）Inflectionalmorphemesinfluencethewholecategory词的范畴;DerivationalmorphemesareoppositeOrder:root(stem)+derivational+inflectional词根/词干+派生+曲折[D]MorphologicalRules形态学规则（词的构成方式à词素是怎样组合成为词）N.+lyàa.;A.+lyàadv.;guardovergeneralization[E]Morphsandallomorphs语素和语素变体Morphs:theactualformsusedtorealizemorphemesAllomorphs:asetofmorphs,allofwhichareversionsofonemorpheme,amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.e.g.map----maps[s]dog----dogs[z]watch----watches[iz]mouse----mice[ai]ox----oxen[n]tooth----teethsheep----sheepEachoftheunderlinedpartiscalledanallomorphofpluralmorpheme.[F]Word-formationprocess（构词法）①Coinageàtheinventionoftotallynewterms（创造全新的词）②Borrowingàthetakingoverofwordsformotherlanguages③Compoundingàajoiningoftwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform（组成复合词）④Blendingàtakingoverthebeginningofonewordandjoiningittotheendofotherword⑤Clippingàawordofmorethanonesyllablereducedtoashorterform⑥Backformationàaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytakingawaythesuffixofanexistingword⑦Conversionàcategorychange,functionalshift⑧Acronymsànewwordsareformedfromtheinitiallettersofasetofotherwords⑨Derivationàthenewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixestotheroots,stems,orwords（添加词缀）⑩Abbreviationàashortenedformofawordorphrasewhichrepresentsthecompleteform（缩短原词）Chapter4Syntax句法学[A]ThedefinitionofsyntaxSyntax:Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandrulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences（句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支）[C]TypesofsentencesSimplesentence简单句:consistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.Coordinate(Compound)sentence并列（复合）句:containstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunctions,suchas“and”,“by”,“or”…Complexsentence复杂句:containstwo,ormore,clauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheotherEmbeddedclause子句ßàmatrixclause主句①subordinator②functionsasagrammaticalunit③maybecomplete[B]Somecategories（范畴）Syntacticcategories:refertoawordoraphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction,suchasthesubjectorthepredicate句法范畴Lexicalcategories:(partsofspeech)词汇范畴Majorlexicalcategories(opencategories):N.V.Adj.Adv.Minorlexicalcategories(closedcategories):Det.Aux.Prep.Pron.Conj.Int.Phrasalcategories:NP,VP,PP,AP短语范畴[C]CombinationalrulesAresmallinnumberàYieldallthepossiblesentencesRuleouttheimpossibleones①phrasestructurerules(rewriterules)（短语结构规则）SàNPVP(Asentenceconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anounphraseandaverbphrase)NPà(det.限定词)(Adj.)N(PP)(S)…“à”：包括/分为VPà(qual.修饰词)V(NP)(POP)(S)…“()”：内部的成分可以省略APà(deg.程度词)A(PP)(S)…“…”：可以选择附加其他补语PPà(deg.)PNP…②X-bartheoryHeadàanobligatorywordthatgiversthephraseitsnameXPorX-phraseXPà(Specifier)X(complement)Formula:X”àSpecX’X-bartheory(X-barschema)X’àXcompl[D]Transformationalrules转换规则àD-structureandS-structure深层结构和表层结构Deepstructure:thestructurethatcorrespondsmostcloselytothemeaningfulgroupingofwords.Itisabstract,whichgivesthemeaningofasentenceandwhichitselfisnotpronounceable.Surfacestructure:lineararrangementofwordsastheyarepronounced.Asurfacestructureisrelativelyconcrete,andgivestheformofasentenceasitisusedincommunication.Twolevelsofsyntacticrepresentationofasentencestructure:OnethatexistsbeforemovementtakesplaceTheotherthatoccursaftermovementtakesplaceFormallinguisticexploration:D-structure:phrasestructurerules+lexiconSentenceatthelevelofD-structureTheapplicationofsyntacticmovementrulestransformsasentencefromD-structureleveltoS-structurelevelTransformational-generativelineofanalysis[E]SyntacticRelationsSequential(syntagmatic)relations组合关系ThelinearorderingofthewordsandthephraseswithinasentenceSubstitutional(paradigmatic)relations(聚合关系)Ifthewordsorphrasesinasentencecanbereplacedbywordsandphrasesoutsidethesentenceandtheresultingsentenceisstillgrammatical,thenwesaythereplacingformsandreplacedformshaveparadigmaticrelations.[F]ImmediateConstituentAnalysis（ICAnalysis）ICAnalysisistosimplydivideasentenceintoitsconstituentelementswithoutatfirstknowingwhattheseelementsare.Theprincipleisthatwetakeasentenceandcutitintotwoandthencutthesepartsintotwoandcontinuewiththissegmentationuntilwereachthesmallestgrammaticalunit,themorphemesLabeledICanalysissyntacticcategoriescriteriainjudgingsyntacticcategories:1)morphologicalfeatures(inflectionalandderivationalaffixestheytake)(number,casegenderetc.)2)syntacticcontextsinwhichthelinguisticformscanoccurCategorythe determiner(Det.)boynoun(n.)oftenqualifierplays verb(v.)aDet.verydegreeword(Deg)smallmodifierballn.must,should…auxiliary(Aux.)and,but,or…conjunction(Con.)[G]ThehierarchicalstructureofsentenceAsentencecanbeanalyzedintoconstituents.Conversely,constituentsatdifferentlevelscancombinetoformincreasinglylargerunits.SentencesareanalyzedintoclausesareanalyzedintophrasesareanalyzedintowordsareanalyzedintomorphemessentencessentencesareusedtobuildclausesareusedtobuildphrasesareusedtobuildwordsareusedtobuildmorphemesSotraditionally,sentencesareassumedtobemadeofindividualwordsinalineardirectionChapter5Semantics语义学[A]ThedefinitionofsemanticsSemantics:thestudyofmeaningfromthelinguisticpointofview（对意义的研究）[B]Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning关于意义研究的一些观点①thenamingtheory命名论②theconceptualistview概念论Thought/referenceàconcept思想/指称

Symbol/Form(words)符号/形式Referentà(realobject)所指③contextualism:JohnFirth语境论④behaviorismàBloomfield行为主义论basedoncontextualistviewS:stimulusr:responseJillJackS---------r………s---------R(thesmalllettersr,sàspeech)(thecapitalizedletterR,Sàpracticalevents)[C]Senseandreference（意义和指称）Sense:isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform,abstractandde-contextualized.（主要涉及语言形式的固有意义，是抽象，不与语境相关的）Reference:meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience（指语言形式在现实物质世界中的事物，是语言成分和非语言的经验世界之间的关系）MovingstarIoncewasbittenbyadog.MorningstarMindyou.Thereisadogoverthere.[D]Majorsenserelations（主要的意义关系）①synonymy同义现象àthesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaninga.dialectalsynonyms方言同义词——synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects（美式/英式英语）b.stylisticsynonyms文体同义词——synonymsdifferinginstyle（问题、正式度不同）c.synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning情感或评价意义不同的同义词（褒贬义）d.collocationalsynonyms搭配同义词（词语搭配、用法）e.semanticallydifferentsynonyms语义不同的同义词（意义上稍有不同）②polysemy多义现象——onewordthathasmorethanonerelatedmeaning③homonymy同音异义Homophones:whentwowordsareidenticalinsound同音异义发音一样Homographs:whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling同形异义拼写一样Completehomonyms:whentwowordsareidenticalbothinspellingandinSound完全同音异义词④hyponymy下义关系——inclusiveness包含关系Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuperordinate.上坐标词Thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaningiscalledhyponym.Co-hyponym下坐标词⑤antonymy反义词——oppositenessGradableantonyms等级反义词（有中间词，程度不同）Complementaryantonyms互补反义词（两个极端dead/alive，male/female）Relationalopposites:pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenitems（关系反义词）[E]Senserelationsbetweensentences句子之间的意义关系①XissynonymouswithY（X与Y同义）如果X真，Y真；X假，Y也假②XisinconsistentwithY（X与Y不一致）如果X真，Y假；X假，Y真③XentailsY(YisanentailmentofX)（X蕴含Y(Y是X的一个含义)）如果X真，Y一定真（去过法国à一定去过欧洲）如果X假，Y有可能真（没去过法国à去/没去过欧洲欧洲）④XpresupposesY(YisaprerequisiteofX)（X预设Y(Y是X的先决条件)）如果X真，Y一定真如果X假，Y仍然真⑤XisacontradictionX自我矛盾（总是假）⑥XissemanticallyanomalousX语义反常[F]Componentialanalysisàawaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning（成分分析法à分析词汇意义的方法）Semanticfeatures语义特征:themeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,orsemanticfeaturesPhonemeàdistinctivefeatures区别特征Showhowthosewordsarerelatedinmeaning[G]PredicationanalysisàawaytoanalyzesentencemeaningproposedbyBritishlinguistG.Leech（述谓结构分析法à分析句子意义的方法）①themeaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotal(ofthemeaningsofallitscomponents)②Grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning包括语法意义和语义意义Grammaticality语法规范性selectionalrestrictions选择限制规则Semanticanalysis:Predication(basicunit)述谓结构àtheabstractmeaningofthesentence句子的抽象意义Argument(s)变元（名词成分）predicate谓词（谓语）Logicalparticipant(s)Sthsaidaboutanargumentorstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargument(s)inasentenceThepredicatecanberegardedasthemainelement.Tomsmokes.àTOM(SMOKE)àone-placepredicationKidslikeapples.àKID,APPLE(LIKE)àtwo-placepredicationIt’sraining.à(BERAIN)àno-placepredicationChapter6Pragmatics语用学[A]ThedefinitionofpragmaticsPragmatics:thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication（是研究某一语言的使用者如何使用句子而达到成功交际）Whatessentiallydistinguishsemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.（在意义的研究中是否考虑到了语境的音素）Ifitisnot,itissemantics.Ifitis,itispragmatics.[B]Context语境/上下文Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.（由说话人和听话人共有的知识构成）[C]Sentencemeaningandutterancemeaning★句子意义和话语意义e.g.Thedogisbarking.Ifwetakeitasagrammaticalunitandconsideritasaself-containedunitinisolation,thenwetreatitasasentence.如果把它当做一个语法单元，认为它是一个独立于语境之外的单元，那就当做句子Ifwetakeitassomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,thenwearetreatingitasanutterance.如果把它当做是说话人在特定场景带着特定目的所说的话，那就当做话语Meaningofasentenceisabstract,andde-contextualized.句子的意义是抽象的，脱离语境的Meaningofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontextualized.话语的意义是具体的，依赖语境的Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.话语的意义基于句子的意义之上，它是句子的抽象意义在交际的真实场景中的体现[D]SpeechActTheory（言语行为理论）DirectspeechactIndirectspeechactFace-threateningFace-savingProposedbyBritishphilosopherJohnAustininthelate1950sAnswer:whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?Constatives叙事话语:statementsthateitherstateordescribe,andthusverifiable陈述→可证实Performatives行事话语:sentencesthatdon’tstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable(performcertainacts)无法证实Gavethedistinctionbetweenconstativesandperformativesandgaverisetoanewmodel:[Aspeakermightbeperformingthreeact