语言学中的名词解释总结

精品文档Chapter1:IntroductionLinguistics:Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.generallinguistics:Thestudyoflanguageasawhole.appliedlinguistics:theapplicationoflinguistictheoriesandprinciplestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.4.prescriptive:Iflinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor “correctandstandard ”usinglanguage,,itissaidtobeprescriptive.(i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldandshouldnotsay).descriptive:Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive.(09C)synchronicstudy:Thedescriptionoflanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy.(06C/04)diachronicstudy:It’sahistoricalstudyoflanguage,itstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.(06C)langue:Langereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.parole:Parolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualpetence:Theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage（08F/09C.）linguisticcompetence:universallyfoundinthegrammarsofallhumanlanguages,syntacticrulescomprisethesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeakercompetence.有什么区别？？performance:Theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.language:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.designfeatures:Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.arbitrariness:Arbitrarinessreferstothereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.(08C)productivity:Languageiscreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyit ’susers.duality（doublearticulation）:Languageconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,withlowerleverofsound,whichismeaningless,andhigherleverofmeaning.displacement:Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationofthespeaker.(regardlessoftimeorspace)(04)精品文档精品文档culturaltransmission:Thecapacityforlanguageisgeneticallybasedwhilethedetailsofanylanguagesystemhavetobetaughtandlearned.(Languageisculturallytransmittedratherthanbyinstinct).19.Sociolinguistics:thestudyofallsocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwithsocietyfromthecoreofthebranch.20.Psycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguageprocessing,comprehendingandproduction,aswellaslanguagemunicativecompetence:theabilitytouselanguageappropriatelyinsocialsituations.Chapter2:Phonologyphonicmedium:Thelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationconstitutethephoneticmediumoflanguage.(andtheindividualsoundswithinthisrangearespeechsounds)phonetics:Thestudyofphonicmediumoflanguageanditisconcernedwithallsoundsintheworld’slanguages.(06C)3.articulatoryphonetics:Itstudiessoundsfromthespeaker ’spointofview,i.e.howaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.(03)4.auditoryphonetics:Thestudiessoundsfromthehearer’spointofview,i.e.howthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer.acousticphonetics:Itstudiesthephysicalpropertiesofthestreamofsoundswhichthespeakerissues.或者Itstudiesthewaysoundstravelbylookingatthesoundwaves,thephysicalmeansbywhichsoundsaretransimittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother)voicing:thewaythatsoundsareproducedwiththevibrationofthevocalcords.voiceless:thewaythatsoundsareproducedwithnovibrationofthevocalcords.broadtranscription:Theuseoflettersymbolsonlytoshowthesoundsorsoundssequencesinwrittenform.narrowtranscription:Theuseoflettersymbol,togetherwiththediacriticstoshowsoundsinwrittenform.diacritics:Thesymbolsusedtoshowdetailedarticulatoryfeaturesofsounds.IPA:shortforInternationalPhoneticAlphabets,asystemofsymbolsconsistsoflettersanddiacritics,usedtorepresentthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguage.aspiration:Alittlepuffofairthatsometimesfollowsaspeechsound.精品文档精品文档mannerofarticulation:Themannerinwhichobstructioniscreated.placeofarticulation:Theplacewhereobstructioniscreated.consonant:aspeechsoundinwhichtheairstreamisobstructedinonewayoranother.vowel:aspeechsoundinwhichtheairstreamfromthelungmeetswithnoobstruction.monophthong:theindividualvowel.diphthong:Thevowelwhichconsistsoftwoindividualvowelsandareproducedbymovingonevowelpositiontoanotherthroughinterveningpositions.(08F)phone:Aphoneticunit,thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.20.phoneme:Anabstractphonologicalunitthatisofdistinctivevalue;it tedbya ’srepresencertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.(06F/04)或者Thesmallestunitofsoundinalanguagewhichcandistinguishtwosounds.allophone:thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentthesamephonemeindifferentphoneticenviromentsarecalledallophonesofthatphoneme(07C/05)phonology:Thedescriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsformpatternsandfunctiontodistinguishandconveymeaning.(06C)phonemiccontrast:twophoneticallysimilarsoundsoccurinthesameenvironmentanddistinguishmeaning,plementarydistribution:allophonesofthesamephonemeandtheydon ’tdistinguishmeaningbutcomplementeachotherindistribution.minimalpair:twodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameposition.sequentialrules:Therulestogovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.assimilationrule:Theruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherbycopyingafeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.deletionrule:Therulethatasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.suprasegmentalfeatures:Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments(syllable,word,sentence),includingstresstoneintonation.(08F)tone:Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalonation:Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,they’recollectivelyknownasintonation.nucleus:Itreferstothemajorpitchchangeinanintonationunit.精品文档精品文档minimalset:soundcombinationswhichareidenticalinformexceptfortheinitialconsonanttogetherconstituteaminimalset.Chapter3:Morphologymorphology:Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandrulesforwordformation.openclass:Agroupofwords,whichcontainsanunlimitednumberofitems,andnewwordscanbeaddedtoitconstantly.(08C)closedclass:Agroupofwordswhosemembershipissmallanddoesnotreadilyacceptnewmembers,includingconjunctions,prepositions,pronouns.etc.morpheme:Thesmallestunitofmeaningofalanguage.Itcannotbedividedwithoutalteringordestroyingitsmeaning.affix:aletteroragroupofletter,whichisaddedtoaword,andwhichchangesthemeaningorfunctionoftheword,includingprefix,infixandsuffix.suffix:Theaffix,whichisaddedtotheendofaword,andwhichusuallychangesthepartofspeechofaword.prefix:Theaffix,whichisaddedtothebeginningofaword,andwhichusuallychangesthemeaningofawordtoitsopposite.boundmorpheme:Morphemethatcannotbeusedalone,anditmustbecombinedwitothers.E.g.–ment.freemorpheme:amorphemethatcanstandaloneasaword（.07F）derivationalmorpheme:Boundmorpheme,whichcanbeaddedtoastemtoformanewword.inflectionalmorpheme:Akindofmorpheme,whichareusedtomakegrammaticalcategories,suchasnumber,tenseandcase.(butneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory).(08F)morphologicalrules:Thewayswordsareformed.Theserulesdeterminehowmorphemescombinetoformpoundwords:Acombinationoftwoormorewords,whichfunctionsasasinglewordsinflection:themorphologicalprocesswhichadjustswordsbygrammaticalmodificationtoindicatesuchgrammaticalcategoriesasnumuber,tenseorpluarity.(04)15.Derivation:Derivationisaprocessofwordformationbywhichderivativeaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.Chapter4:Syntax精品文档精品文档syntax:Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.category:Itreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.syntacticcategories:Wordscanbegroupedtogetherintoarelativelysmallnumberofclasses,calledsyntacticcategories.majorlexicalcategory:onetypeofwordlevelcategories,whichoftenassumedtobetheheadsaroundwhichphrasesarebuilt,includingN,V,Adj,andPrep.minorlexicalcategory:onetypeofwordlevelcategories,whichhelpsormodifiesmajorlexicalcategory.phrase:syntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrase,thecategoryofwhichisdeterminedbythewordcategoryaroundwhichthephraseisbuilt.phrasecategory:thephrasethatisformedbycombiningwithwordsofdifferentcategories.(InEnglishsyntacticanalysis,fourphrasalcategoriesareNP,VP,PP,AP.)head:Thewordroundwhichphraseisformedistermedhead.specifier:Thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsandattachedtothetoplevelaresaidtofunctionasplement:Thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsarecomplements.phrasestructurerule:Thespecialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule.XPrule:Inallphrases,thespecifierisattachedatthetopleveltotheleftoftheheadwhilethecomplementisattachedtotheright.ThesesimilaritiescanbesummarizedasanXPrule,inwhichXstandsfortheheadN,V,AorP.X^theory:Atheoreticalconceptintransformationalgrammarwhichrestrictstheformofcontext-freephrasesstructurerules.coordination:Somestructuresareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunction(suchasandoror.Suchphenomenonisknownascoordination.)15.subcategorization:Theinformationaboutaword ’scomplementisincludedintheheadandtermedsuncategorization.(07C)complementizer:Wordswhichintroducethesentencecomplementaretermedcomplementizer.(08F/09C)complementclause:Thesentenceintroducedbythecomplementizeriscalledacomplementclause.精品文档精品文档complementphrase:theelements,includingacomplementizerandacomplementclauseiscalledacomplementphrase.matrixclause:thecontrusctioninwhichthecomplementphraseisembeddediscalledmatrixclause.modifier:theelement,whichspecifiesoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheadsiscalledmodifier.transformation:aspecialtypeofrulethatcanmoveanelementfromonepositiontoanother.inversion:theprocessoftransformationthatmovestheauxiliaryfromtheInflpositiontoapositiontotheleftofthesubject,iscalledinversion.Doinsertion:Intheprocessofformingyes-noquestionthatdoesnotcontainanovertInfl,interrogativedoisinsertedintoanemptyInflpositontomaketransformationwork.deepstructure:AlevelofabstractsyntacticrepresentationformedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththeheads’ssubcategorizationproperties.(08F)surfacestructure:Correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultfromappropriatetransformations.(05)Whquestion:InEnglish,thekindofquestionsbeginningwithawh-wordarecalledwhquestion.Whmovement:Thetransformationthatwillmovewhphrasefromitspositionindeepstructuretoapositionatthebeginningofthesentence.Thistransformationiscalledwhmovement.28.moveα:ageneralruleforallthemovementrules,where ‘alpha‘isacovertermfoeaelementthatcanbemovedfromoneplacetoanother.补充universalgrammar:theinnatenessprinciplesandpropertiesthatpertaintothegrammarsofallhumanlanguages第.十一章30.structuralanalysis:toinvestigatethedistinctionofformseg.morphemesinalanguage.31.ICanalysis:howsmallcomponentsinsentencesgotogethertoformlargerconstituents.32.paradigmaticrelation:thesubstitutionalrelationbetweenasetoflinguisticitems,thatis,linguisticformscanbesubstituedforeachotherinthesamepositon.33.syntagmaticrelation:therelationbetweenanylinguisticelementswhicharesimultaneouslypresentinastructure.精品文档精品文档34.immidiateconstituentanalysis（直接成分分析法）isthetechniqueofbreakingupsentencesintowordgroupsbymakingsuccessivebinarycuttingsuntilthelevelofsinglewordsisreached.35.endocentricconstruction:向(心结构或内心结构)Oneconstructionwhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalent,orapproachingequivalence,tooneofitsconstituents.ThetypicalEnglishendocentricconstructionsarenounphrasesandadjectivephrases（.03）36.exocentricconstruction(离心结构或外心结构)theoppositeofendocentricconstruction,referstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothewholegroup.Mostconstructionsareexocentric.Chapter5:Semanticssemantics:Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.Semantictriangle:ItissuggestedbyOdgenandRichards,whichsaysthatthemeaningofawordisnotdirectlylinkedbetweenalinguisticformandtheobjectintherealworld,butthroughthemediationofconceptofthemind.sense:Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform.Itisabstractandde-contexturalized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.reference:Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld.Itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.synonymy:Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.dialectalsynonyms:synonymsthatareusedindifferentregionaldialects.(08C)stylisticsynonyms:synonymsthatdifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality.collocationalsynonyms:Synonymsthatdifferintheircolllocation,i.e.,inthewordstheygotogetherwith.polysemy:Thesamewordhasmorethanonemeaning.(itcanbeunderstoodasthegrowthanddevelopmentoforchangeinthemeaningofthewords).(05/03)homonymy:Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform.i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.(04)homophones:Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones.homographs:Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.精品文档精品文档completehomonymy:Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecompletehomonyms.hyponymy:Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.superordinate:Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuperordinate;andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms;hyponymsofthesamesuperordinateareco-hyponymstoeachother.co-hyponyms:Hyponymsofthesamesuperordinateareco-hyponyms.antonymy:Thetermantonymyisusedforoppositenessofmeaning.gradableantonyms:Someantonymsaregradablebecausethereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair.(e.g,antonymsoldandyoung,betweenthemthereexistmiddle-aged,mature,elderly.)complementaryantonyms:apairofantonymsthatthedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother.Itisamatterofeitheroneortheother.relationalopposites:Pairsifwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitemsarecalledrelationalopposites.Forexample,husband---wife,father---son,buy---sell,let---rent,above---below.entailment:therelationshipbetweentwosentenceswherethetruthofoneisinferredfromthetruthoftheother.E.g.Cindykilledthedogentailsthedogisdead(07F).或者Entailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.presupposition:Whataspeakerorwriterassumesthatthereceiverofthemassagealreadyknowstomakeanutterancemeaningfulorappropriate。e.g.SometeahasalreadybeentakenisapresuppositionofTakesomemoreponentialanalysis:anapproachtoanalyzethelexicalmeaningintoasetofmeaningcomponentsorsemanticfeatures.Forexample,boymaybeshownas[+human][+male][-adult].predicationanalysis:away,proposedbyBritishlinguistG.Leech,toanalyzesentencemeaning.(08C)predication:Intheframeworkofpredicationanalysis,thebasicunitsiscalledpredication,whichistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.predicate:Apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.argument:Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelement(s)inasentence.精品文档精品文档selectionalrestriction:Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbytherulescalledselectionalrestrictions,i.e.constraintsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers.semanticfeatures:Thesmallestunitsofmeaninginaword,whichmaybedescribedasacombinationofsemanticcomponents.Forexample,womanhasthesemanticfeatures[+human][-male][+adult].(04)presequence:Thespecificturnthathasthefunctionofprefiguringthecomingaction.(05)Chapter6:Pragmaticspragmatics:Thestudyofhowspeakersusessentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.context:Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstituedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakersandthehearers.(05)sentencemeaning:Themeaningofaself-containedunitwithabstractandde-contextualizedfeaturesinisolationfromcontext.utterancemeaning:Themeaningthataspeakerconveysbyusingaparticularutteranceinacertaincontextwithacertainpurpose.(03、08C)utterance:expressionproducedinaparticularcontextwithapartic