跨文化视野下中美时间观念的研究分析英文版样本

资料内容仅供您学习参考，如有不当或者侵权，请联系改正或者删除。AbstractBecauseofthedifferencesingeographicallocation,dailyhabbitsandhistory,avarietyinChineseandWesterncultures,especiallyinChineseandAmericancultureshaveevolved.TimeconceptdifferencesofChineseandAmericanaredirectlycausedbythetworegions’peopleholdingmanydifferentvaluesintheirdailylives,studies,andwork.Somepeoplearebornwithanimpatientpersonality,whileotherswithaslowtemperament.Somepeoplearealwaysverypunctual,whileothersmaybefrequentlylatetoappointments.ThesedifferencesarereflectedinChineseandAmericandifferenttimeconcepts.Inthefollowingpaper,supportedbyscientificsourcesandresearches,theauthorwilldiscussthetimeconceptofChineseandAmericanincross-culturalcommunication,andtrytoavoidculturalconflicts.Keywords:ChineseandAmericancultures;timeconcept;cross-culturalcommunication摘要由于地域、日常习惯和历史的差异,孕育出了多样化的中西方文化,特别是中美文化。中美时间观念的差异就是由两地的人们在日常生活、学习或工作中许许多多不同的价值观念所产生的。有的人天生就是急性子,而有的人却从小就是慢脾气。有的人守时,可有的人常迟到。这些都反映出中美人们不同的时间观念。在下文中,笔者将结合一些科学的研究资料探讨跨文化交际中的中美时间观以避免文化冲突。关键词:中美文化;时间观念;跨文化交际Contents1.Introduction 12.Literaturereview 12.1Thedefinitionoftimeconcept 12.2Theimportanceoftimeconceptincross-culturalcommunication 13.ThedifferencesinChineseandAmericantimeconcept 23.1Theline-typetimeoutlookandtheround-typetimeoutlook 23.1.1Americans’line-typetimeoutlook 23.1.2Chinese’sround-typetimeoutlook 33.2Mono-chronictimeandpoly-chronictime 43.2.1Americans’mono-chronictimeconcept 53.2.2Chinese’spoly-chronictimeconcept 73.3Chinese’spast-timeorientationandAmericans’future-timeorientation 83.3.1Chinese’spast-timeorientation 83.3.2Americans’future-timeorientation 104.ThecrasisofChineseandAmericantimeconcept 124.1People’sconsciousnessoftimethriftisstrengthening 124.2Past-timeorientationisturningintofuture-timeorientation 135.Conclusion 14References 151.IntroductionThispaperaimstoexploredifferencesinChineseandAmericantimeconceptsandculture.Theauthorhopesthispapercan,toacertaindegree,givethereadersaclearunderstandingaboutthepeople’sconceptoftimeinthetworegions.Thestudyontheconceptoftimeistohelpustounderstandculturaldifferencesandhelpuscarryouteffectiveinternationalcommunication,improvecross-culturalawareness,reducebarrierstocross-culturalcommunicationandthemisunderstandingresultingfromthedifferentconceptoftimeasmuchaspossible,andavoid”culturalconflict”or”timeconflict”incross-culturalcommunication.2.Literaturereview2.1ThedefinitionoftimeconceptTimeconceptisevolvedfromtheprocessofpeopleunderstandingandtransformingtheworld.Timeconceptwillremainrelativelystableforafairlylongperiod.AccordingtoLiuXifang(),timeconceptreferstothedifferentawarenessandunderstandingtowardstime.Itisnotonlyabasicfactorintheenvironmentofhumanactivity,butalsoadeep-seatedculturalpartofthesocialsrtucture.Itisshapednaturallythroughthelong-periodpracticeofhumanbeingandthelong-periodhistoricalprogress.Itreflectstheattitudeofpeopletowardstime.Atthesametime,italsoreflectsthewaythatpeopledealwithtimeandutilizetime.Everyonehashisorherownconceptoftime.Therefore,differentpeople,especiallythepeopleinChinaandAmericahavedifferentconceptsoftime.2.2Theimportanceoftimeconceptincross-culturalcommunicationAsglobaleconomicintegrationmoveson,Chinese-Americanculturalcommunicationandintegrationbecomemorefrequent.Understandingdifferentculturalconceptsoftimeimprovescross-culturalawarenessandreducesbarrierstocross-culturalcommunication.Avoiding”culturalconflict”or”timeconflict”becomemoreandmoreimportant.Ifpeopleonlyrecognizeandadheretotheirownconceptoftimeandneglectunderstandingandrespecttothetimeconceptofothercultures,therewouldarisemanymisunderstandings.WeshouldacknowlegdethatpeoplefromChineseandAmericanculturesholddifferentattitudestowardstimeandthemethodofusingtime.Thenweshouldovercometheethicalculturalcentrismandreducethemisunderstandingofdifferentconceptsoftimeasmuchaspossible.Thetimeorientationunderdifferentculturesshouldgetrespectandrecognition.Whenthereisaconflictinthetimeconcept,wecannotsimplyjugdeitasgoodorbad.Culturalcommunicationisaprocessofunderstandingfromoneculturetoanother.Therefore,inordertodeepenmutualunderstanding,itisnecessarytoadoptaliberalattitude.3.ThedifferencesinChineseandAmericantimeconcept3.1Theline-typetimeoutlookandtheround-typetimeoutlookAccordingtoGuanShijie(1995:285),timeoutlookcanbedividedintoround-typetimeoutlookandline-typetimeoutlook,Americansbelongtoline-typetimeoutlook,whileChinesepeoplebelongtoround-typetimeoutlook.3.1.1Americans’line-typetimeoutlookInAmericaneyes,timeislikeariverwhichflowsstraighttoseafromtheheadstream.Oncetimehasgone,itwillnevercomeback.SoAmericanscherishtimesomuch.TheAmericanheroBenjaminFranklinsaid”Doyoulovelife?Iflove,don’twasteyourtime,becauselifeismadeupoftime.”TheAmericanculturewithJewishChristiantraditionusuallyregardstimeasastraightlineandalinearcontinuousone-waymovement.Timeismoving,timeisgoingby,timeisbothpreciousandobstinate,oncegoneitcanneverberestored.Theyalsobelievethattimehasbeginningandendingtoo,andtimecanbemeasuredbytheclockorcalendar.Everythingisaccuratetoeveryminute,orevenmilliseconds.TimeinAmericansocietyisalmostacommodity.Itisrealandvaluable,itcanbeboughtandsold,youcansaveandyoucanwastetime.Youcanloseandyoucanborrowtime.Timecanbemanufacturedandcanbemeasured.Americanpopularmagazinesoftenpublishrelatedarticleswithsuchproposalthathowpeoplecanusetimeefficientlyonshopping,cooking,cleaninghouse,raisingchildren,andflowergardening.IntheUnitedStates,”NewYorkTimes”columnonthebusiness,thereisanauthorwhohasclaimedhimselfas”efficiencyexpert”,herecommendsaneffectivewaytoutilizetimeandmakethenextday’sdevelopmentactivitiesplanwhensleepingbythemobilizationoftheunconscious.Hesaidsuchawaycanmakefulluseofsleeptime,ratherthanwaste.Thefollowingproverbsreflectthistimeconceptofpeople:”Neverputofftilltomorrowwhatyoucandotoday.””Timeandtidewaitfornoman.””Akehaywhilethesunshines.””Tomorrownevercomes.”3.1.2Chinese’sround-typetimeoutlookThespecialwaythatthefarm-basedeasternerscarrythroughexchangingmaterialwithnaturehasbeendominantinthewholeeconomiclifeofallsociety.Sucharuralcivilizationregardspeopleandnatureasinterrelated,andregardtheworldasanorganicalwhole.TheresultistheOrientalSociety’s”ManandNature”round-typetimeconcept.Thismeansthattimechangesinharmonywithnaturalrhythm,whichisamovementthatmoveseternallyandcyclicallyalongitsarcandspiral,suchasalternatingindayandnight,seasons’backandforth,month’srotating,age’schanging,plant’scyclegrowth,labor’sfarmingseasonsturnover,areself-movementrevertingincycles(JiaYuxin,1977:71).Thisconceptoftimeasfourseasons:reincarnationandendlesscyclingmakeAsianslookveryrichintermsoftime,theycanusemorediscretionarytimetodoanythingwithoutworrying.Forexample,iftheschoolteacherhaven’tfinishedanimportantelementoftext,hewoulddragaperiodoftimetofinishitafterclass;TherearefewpeoplewhomentionthetimeinChineseweddinginvitations,peoplecancometodinnerlateseparatedbyanhourlongwiththeearlyones,soafeastcanlasteventwoorthreehours.Appointmenttimetoseeourfriendsishardlydetermined.Forexample,ifthereisafriendwhohasnotbeenseenforalongtime,andwanttoseeyouduringweekend,maybeyoushouldstayhomeallday,andwaitforhimtocome.3.2Mono-chronictimeandpoly-chronictimeAccordingtoobservation,Edward.T.Hall(1983:42)hasdividedtheusingoftimeindifferentculturesintotwoclassifications,oneismonochronictimesystem;theotherispolychronictimesystem(Hall,1982:16).Thesocietywithinheavyindustry,ingeneral,adoptsthemonochronictimesystem.Theyjustarrangethelineoftimestrictly,arrangethingsinacertainpieceoftimewithoutchangingsoeasilyunderthearrangement.Theyliketodothingsefficiencily.Thepolychronictimeistheheritageoftraditionalagriculturalsociety,peopleliketodoseveralthingstogetherinasametime.3.2.1Americans’mono-chronictimeconceptTheAmericansareusedtodoingonlyonethinginacertaintime,sotheyliketoplantimecarefullyandthoughtfully.Therefore,calendars,schedules,diaries,annualsandaccountingledgersplayanimportantroleintheAmericansociety.Tosomeextent,itextremelycontrolsthesocialactivitiesofpeople,itdecideswhattheydoordon’tdoatanymoment,whatmustbedonefirst,whatshouldbedonefinally.Americansarecontroledbytheclocktightly,theyevenregardthemselvesastheslavetonothingbuttheclock.JustlikeHallsaid”IntheWesternworld,nobodycangetoutofthecontrolofmono-timesystem.Infact,societyandbussinesslife,eventhesexualbehaviorareinthecontroloftime.Timemakesthepeople’stotallifenet.”(Hall,1982:20).Thiscanbefoundoutfromthebussinessactivitiesinthecross-culturalcommunication.Americansdemandtodealwiththingsaccordingtotimetable.AstheAmericanscherishtimesomuch,theybelive:”Timeismoney.””Punctualityisthepolitenessofprinces.””Punctualityisthesoulofbusiness.””Timeworkswonders.””Timeworksgreatchanges.”MakingplansMakingplansbeforedoingthingsisacommonhabbitinAmerica.Wordslike”schedule”and”agenda”,areusedwidelyinAmericanlife.BecauseAmericansliketomakeplansinadvance,theydoeverythingbycomplyingwiththearrangement.Assoonastheyfindtheyarenotfollowingtheschedule,theywillgetveryuneasyandtrybesttoquickenthespeed.What’smore,Americansusuallycalculatetimeinminutesorseconds,theyarecontroleddeeplybyclock.Americansalwaysplanwhatshouldbedonenextintheirmindsinadvance.Appointmentandschedulesareveryimportanttomembersofmonochromiccultures.Peopleareconcernedaboutitnotbeingdisturbed.Theydoeverythingbytheiragenda.Oncethetimetheyplanisover,theywillstopwhatevertheyaredoingatonce.Thendowhattheyplantodonext.Whenpeopleplananevent,theyoftensetthetimedaysorweeksbeforehand.Oncethetimeisfixed,ittakesalmostanemergencytochangeit.Ifpeoplewanttocometoyourhomeforafriendlyvisit,theywillusuallymakeacalltomakesurewhetheritisconvenient.Ifyoudon’tdolikethis,Americanswouldthinkthatyouarenotpolite,becausesuddenvisitwouldupsettheirplans.Accordingtoaninvestigation,someforeignteachersinChinaoftencomplainthattheyarenotinformedinadvance.Classesexchanging,class-canceling,andsportsmeeting,oftenareinformedinthelastminute.Sometimes,withoutconsultingwiththem,theyaskthemtolectureorrecord.Forthesematters,theyfeelunhappybecausetheydonotlikethelastminutenotice(HuXiaoqiong,:1).SoChinesepeopleareeasierto”gowiththeflow”thanAmericanswholikeplanstobefixedandunchangeable.Influencedbytimethrift,Americanstreattimeseriously.Iftheycannotplantheirtimeproperly,theywillbelookeddownuponbyothers.Inbusinesses,”Timeismoney”,everyonefollowssetagendas.Minutesarespentatmeetingsthatarepreciselyscheduled.NorthAmericanstakeprideinfindingtimetospendwithfamilyandfriendswhenjugglingbusyworkschedules.Generallyspeaking,ifAmericanshavearrangedhistimeforstudyathome,hewillnotchangehisplan.Americansoftenmakeeveryday’splan,everyweek’splan,andeveneveryyear’splan.Oncetheplanisarranged,theywillnotchangeit.InEnglish,weoftenheartheseexpressions,”Myagendafortodaystartswith…””Placeontheagenda,””Mapoutaschedule,””Accomplishsomethingaccordingtoschedule.”OnceAmericansfindthemselvesarebehindtheschedule,theybecomepressured.Thentheydotheirbesttospeedup.AsE.T.Hall(1959:20)said,”Theyslavetonothing,buttheclock.”InAmerica,theclocknotonlymasterspeople’ssociallife,butalsootheraspectsoflife.Thetimeclockrecordsthehourwemustwork,theschoolbellsmoveusfromclasstoclass,andthecalendarmarksimportantdaysandeventsinourlives.Inaword,clockdecideswhatshouldbedoneinadvance.Thefollowingproverbsreflectthistimeconceptofpeople:”Affairsthataredonebyduedegreesaresoonended.””Forewarnedisforearmed.””Preparednessensuressuccess,unpreparednessspellsfailure.””Preparednessensuressecurity;unpreparednessinvitesdisaster.””Tobewiseistothinkeverythingbeforehand.”KeepingwatchKeepingwatchisanothercommonhabbitinAmerica.InAmericans’views,goingtomeetingontimeistogowithoutsaying.Thebehaviorofcominglateisveryimpolite.Nomatterwhethertheappointmentispersonalorpublicmeeting,ifyouarelateforit,youwillberegardedasalazyperson,andyouwilllosetrustfromothers.Inthepersonalintercourse,youmayloseyourfriends;Inthework,youmaylosethechancetogetpromoted.3.2.2Chinese’spoly-chronictimeconceptBecausetheChinesecultureisgoodattheintegration,itisusuallythoughtthatChineseadoptthepolychronictimesystem.Peoplecanplanseveralthingsatthesametime,andalsodothesethingstogether.Chinesethinkthatthewholethingintheworlddevelopandchangewiththechangeoftime.Sopeopleprefertodothingsinagoodchance,thatiseachstepofactionisdecidedtemporarilybythesurroundings.Sothat,thewholeworkinthearrangementwillbedisturbedeasilybyotherthings.Itshowsthatthereismuchlessfixingtimebeforemeeting,andfriendsorrelativesneedn’ttofixtimebeforegoingtovisiteachother.Insomeofficialdepartments,thestaffcanchat,readnewspaper,whentheywork.Iftheworkhasnotbeendoneinthefirstday,hecangoontodoitinthesecondday.Also,thesalespersoncansettleaccountswiththefirstcustomer.Atthesametime,hetakesoutthegoodstoletthesecondcustomerlook,evensayhellotothethirdcustomer.ThisiswhatAmericansdisagreewithandcan’taccept.3.3Chinese’spast-timeorientationandAmericans’future-timeorientationOurfixationwithtimeandthepowerwegiveitareratherobvious.”Timeiskindlygod”(Samovar,Porter,Stefani,:76).Asisthecasewithmostoftheissuesdiscussedinthispaper,culturesvarywidelyintheirconceptoftime,whattheydifferliesinthevalueplacedonthepast,present,andfutureandhoweachinfluencesinteraction.3.3.1Chinese’spast-timeorientationChinahasapast-timeorientationculture.Pasttimeorientationofapersoneithertothepasttoheart,towardsthepast,thingslikewhathappenedonjustthesameorattentiontotheoldlife,repeatedlyrestatedthingofthepast.Chinaisoneoftheworld’sfourancientcivilizations.Asplendidculturalheritageof5,000years,withancient,oldmeansrespected.Experienceandqualificationsinthesociallifeisveryimportant,oldageisasignofwisdom.Asthesayinggoes:”Donotlistentoelders,sufferintheeyes.”Beforedothings,peoplealwaysasktheoldergenerationofexperiencelearnedwithanopenmind.Linkedtothisistheworshipofancestors,respectforteachers,re-experience,re-aged.Inthepresent,pastandfuture,thesethreerelevantdimensionsoftimeexist,howeverdifferentnationsholddifferentopinions.Experiencedthefarmingculture,Chineseapproachtolookbackpastorientation,theyarelivinginatradition-orientedSociety.Peoplecherishthepastwithclearreverence.Pastexperienceandlessonsarealwaysanimportantreferencetojudgethesuccessorfailureofsomethingtoday.Thefutureisnotasinterestingasthepast,becauseitisunknowableandelusive.Andrelatively,peopleworshiptheirancestorsandrespectteachers,likedoingthingsbyciteingthetrackandsource.Becausethesethingsareassociatedwiththepast.Thisiswhypeoplecalltheteachers”olddivision”,forthesakeof”Theoldgingerishotter”.Thispastorientation,alsoaffectsChinesepeople'snationalcharacter.Generallyspeaking,Chinaisasocietywhichseekingstaticstability.Unityandstabilityarethetoppriorityofeachdynastyandtheguaranteeofsocialdevelopment;”single-mindedness”,”Contentmentishappiness”,”Ancientbookisthick”,”Gooddeedgoesunpunishedly”,”ancestorsofthelawcannotchange”andotherideasarethemanifestationofseekingstabilityandpastorientationwithoutexception.Thefollowingproverbsreflectthistimeconceptofpeople:”Actaccordingtocircumstances.””Awreckonshoreisabeaconatsea.””Anoldpoachermakesthebestkeeper.””Anoldoveniseasiertoheatthananewone.””Anoldestablishmentneverwantscustomers.””Lessonslearnedfromthepastcanguideoneinthefuture.””Predictthefuturebyreviewingthepast.””Theoverturnedcartaheadisawarningbeforehand.””Theoldgingerishot.””Theolderonegrows,themoreonelearns.””Rulesthatancestordecidedcannotbechanged.””Toforgetthepastistobetray.”3.3.2Americans’future-timeorientationChinesecultureisdifferentfromtheUnitedStateswhichisdominatedbythefuture-timeorientationculture.Allfuture-timeorientationfocusonthefuture,thefuturedirectionoftheirimportantvalues.ChristianinWesterncountriesbelievein”evilhumannature,”Fromtheimpactofeatingtheforbiddenfruitandtheguiltoforiginalsin,humanlostparadiseandcametoearthtosufferblame.ForAmericans,thereisnobackway,butonlymovingforward,constantlymovingforward.Thereishopetofightwiththefuturethroughtheirownefforts.ItisnotdifficulttounderstandEnglishandChineseintheuseof”before”and”after”.Allegationsofpastandfuturearetoadopttheconceptofdifferentideas.Thus,”punishmentasadeterrent,”inEnglishshouldbe:Learnfromthepastmistakestoavoidfutureones.LifeintheUnitedStatesisfast-paced.Therearefastfoodrestaurants,overnightdeliveryservices,shuttleservices,instantcashmachines,fastweightlossplans,andeveninstantminuterice.Avidlyfollowingsuchsayingsas,”Theearlybirdgetstheworm.”and,”Firstcome,firstserved.”NorthAmericansevenhavetheirmealsinanefficientmanner.Microwaveshelpmaketheirearlybreakfasts,lunches,andfive-o'clockdinners.Americans,bycontrast,rarelylookbackbutalllooktothefuture,sofutureOrientationistheirimportantvalue.Americans,generallydonotpayattentiontootherpeople’shistoryandtradition.Equalopportunityforall,historyisinsignificant.Ifyouworkhard,youcanbesuccessful,theAmericandreamismammoth.Theythinkthefutureismanageable,oratleastcanbeundertheircontrol.Thepresentisjusttoprepareabetterfuture.Itisgenerallyconsideredchangemeansprogress,newthingsarealwaysbetterthantheold.Therefore,veryfewAmericansworshipancestors.Ageandexperiencemaynotbeworthyofadmiration.Eachpersonshouldrelyonhisstruggletochangethedestiny.Withtheimpactofthisfutureorientation,Americansingeneralaremoreactiveandoptimistic,theylikebreakingtheroutine.Underthetwocultures,peopleuse”before”and”after”todescribethepastandthefuture.Theymayalmosttakedifferentviews.Chinesepeoplearefacedwiththepasttoseeiftheproblemwouldbe”neverbeendonebefore,orsince”,”unprecedented”,”successors”and”notend”,whileAmericansarejusttheopposite.AmericansaregettingaheadofthestorybutChineseshouldbeexpressedasgoingbehindthestory.AnotherexampleinEnglishisthelatestnewstranslatedintoChinesecannotbesaidtobethe”lastmessage”,butonlyshouldspeakof”news”andthestorydatesbacktotwohundredsyearsago.Itis”storytakesplacetwoyearsago.”TimeorientationofdifferentculturemakestheAmericanperceptionof”oldage”,”old”,thesewordswillmakeadifference.Chinaisasystem-orientedsociety,peopleoftheage,weightandexperience,areasymbolofwisdomandauthority.SofortheChinesewordslike”old”and”big”paytributetoChang,suchas”OldMr.Chang,yourfirstcall.”and”Bigbrother,youhavethefinalsay.”ButthispraisewillnotworkintheAmericanculture,becauseintheirhearts,”old”meansyouthispast,itissynonymouswithuselessness.Thefollowingproverbsreflecttheirtimeviewofwelcominginnovationandchange.”Achangeisasgoodasarest.””Amanwhowillneverchangehismindishewhohasnomindtochange.””Allglorycomesfromdaringtobegin.””Boldlyattemptedishalfwon.””Donottakeyourharptotheparty.””Letbygonesbebygones.””Newthingsaremostattractive.””Anolddogwilllearnnonewtricks.””Changingischarming.””Amillcannotgrindwiththewaterthatispast.”4.ThecrasisofChineseandAmericantimeconceptTimesarechanging,soisourtimeconcept.Withthedevelopmentofeconomy,advancingofsocietyandtheincreasingcross-culturalcommunication,people’stimeconceptsinfluenceeachother.WithChina’sentryintoWTOandtheintegrityofglobaleconomy,Chinesepeople’stimeconceptbeginstochange.ThefollowingtwoaspectsshowthetimeconceptchangeofChinesepeople.4.1People’sconsciousnessoftimethriftisstrengtheningInoldtimes,peopletaketraditionalagricultultureasmajorindustry.Theirconsciousnessoftimeconceptisveryweak.Withthedevelopmentofmarketeconomyandimprovementinthelevelofindustrialization.People’sconsciousnessoftimeconceptisstrengtheningandtheconceptoftimethriftisimproving.Theconceptsthattimeismoneyandtimeislifearegoingdeepintoeveryone’sheart.Thepaceofpeople’slifeisspeedingup.Peoplebegintorespectotherpeople’stime.Theywillnotdisturbothers’timeatwill.Everyoneknowsthateveryminutecounts.Thefollowingproverbsreflectpeople’sconsciousnessoftime:”Alltimeisnotimewhenitispast.””Wastingtimeisrobbingoneself.””Tosavetimeistolengthenlife.””Lifeisashuttle.””Nocancallbackyesterday.””Hewhogainstimegainsallthings.””Believeeachdaytohavedrownedasyourlast.”4.2Past-timeorientationisturningintofuture-timeorientationWiththecomingofnewcentury,oursocietyischanging.Internationalcompetitionisincreasinglyfierce.Toanynation,thereisnowaytosurviveiflookingtothepast.Anationishopelessunlessthepeopleofthenationlookforward.Thetraditionalconceptsofemphasizinga