新编简明英语语言学教程课文翻译

千里之行，始于足下让知识带有温度。第第2页/共2页精品文档推荐新编简明英语语言学教程课文翻译《新编简明英语语言学教程》其次版练习题参考答案

Chapter1Introduction

1.Howdoyouinterpretthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.

答：Linguisticsisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Inordertodiscoverthenatureandrulesoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,thelinguistshastocollectandobservelanguagefactsfirst,whicharefoundtodisplaysomesimilarities,andgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem;thenheformulatessomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure.Thehypothesesthusformedhavetobecheckedrepeatedlyagainsttheobservedfactstofullyprovetheirvalidity.Inlinguistics,asinanyotherdiscipline,dataandtheorystandinadialecticalcomplementation,thatis,atheorywithoutthesupportofdatacanhardlyclaimvalidity,anddatawithoutbeingexplainedbysometheoryremainamuddledmassofthings.

2.Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?

答：Themajorbranchesoflinguisticsare:

(1)phonetics:itstudiesthesoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication;

(2)phonology:itstudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaning

incommunication;

(3)morphology:itstudiesthewayinwhichlinguisticsymbolsrepresenting

soundsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwords;

(4)syntax:itstudiestheruleswhichgovernhowwordsarecombinedtoform

grammaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguages;

(5)semantics:itstudiesmeaningconveyedbylanguage;

(6)pragmatics:itstudiesthemeaninginthecontextoflanguageuse.

3.Inwhatbasicwaysdoesmodernlinguisticsdifferfromtraditionalgrammar?

答：Thegeneralapproachthustraditionallyformedtothestudyoflanguageovertheyearsisroughlyreferredtoas“traditionalgrammar.”Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinseveralbasicways.

Firstly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.

Second,modemlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgrammarians,ontheotherhand,tendedtoemphasize,maybeover-emphasize,theimportanceofthewrittenword,partlybecauseofitspermanence.

Then,modemlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.

4.Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?Why?

答：Inmodemlinguistics,asynchronicapproachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronicone.Becausepeoplebelievedthatunlessthevariousstatesofalanguageindifferenthistoricalperiodsaresuccessfullystudied,itwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.

5.Forwhatreasonsdoesmodernlinguisticsgiveprioritytospeechratherthantowriting?

答：Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.Modemlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasthenaturalortheprimarymediumofhumanlanguageforsomeobviousreasons.Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Evenintoday'sworldtherearestillmanylanguagesthatcanonlybespokenbutnotwritten.Thenineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.Andalso,speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue,andwritingislearnedandtaughtlaterwhenhegoestoschool.Formodernlinguists,spokenlanguagerevealsmanytruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenlanguageisonlythe“revised”recordofspeech.Thustheirdataforinvestigationandanalysisaremostlydrawnfromeverydayspeech,whichtheyregardasauthentic.

6.HowisSaussure'sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky'sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?

答：Saussure'sdistinctionandChomsky'sareverysimilar,theydifferatleastinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.

7.Whatcharacteristicsoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprehensivedefinitionoflanguage?

答：Firstofall,languageisasystem,i.e.,elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.

Second,languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor.

Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.

Fourth,languageishuman-specific,i.e.,itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess.

8.WhatarethemainfeaturesofhumanlanguagethathavebeenspecifiedbyC.Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanimalcommunicationsystem?答：Themainfeaturesofhumanlanguagearetermeddesignfeatures.Theyinclude:

1)Arbitrariness

Languageisarbitrary.Thismeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Agoodexampleisthefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.

2)Productivity

Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.

3)Duality

Languageconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowerorthe

basiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselves.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.

4)Displacement

Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.Thisiswhat“displacement”means.

5)Culturaltransmission

Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,i.e.,wewereallbornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.

9.Whatarethemajorfunctionsoflanguage?Thinkofyourownexamplesforillustration.

答：Threemainfunctionsareoftenrecognizedoflanguage:thedescriptivefunction,theexpressivefunction,andthesocialfunction.

Thedescriptivefunctionisthefunctiontoconveyfactualinformation,whichcanbeassertedordenied,andinsomecasesevenverified.Forexample:“Chinaisalargecountrywithalonghistory.”

Theexpressivefunctionsuppliesinformationabouttheuser?sfeelings,preferences,prejudices,andvalues.Forexample:“Iwillnevergowindow-shoppingwithher.”

Thesocialfunctionservestoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople..Forexample:“Weareyourfirmsupporters.”

Chapter2SpeechSounds

1.Whatarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication?Ofthetwo,whichone

isprimaryandwhy?

答：Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.

Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismoreprimarythanwriting,forreasons,pleaserefertotheanswertothefifthprobleminthelastchapter.

2.Whatisvoicingandhowisitcaused?

答：VoicingisaqualityofspeechsoundsandafeatureofallvowelsandsomeconsonantsinEnglish.Itiscausedbythevibrationofthevocalcords.

3.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtranscriptiondiffer?答：Thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonlyiscalledbroadtranscription.Thisisthetranscriptionnormallyusedindictionariesandteachingtextbooksforgeneralpurposes.Thelatter,i.e.thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacriticsiscallednarrowtranscription.Thisisthetranscriptionneededandusedbythephoneticiansintheirstudyofspeechsounds.Withthehelpofthediacriticstheycanfaithfullyrepresentasmuchofthefinedetailsasitisnecessaryfortheirpurpose.

Inbroadtranscription,thesymbol[l]isusedforthesounds[l]inthefourwordsleaf[li:f],feel[fi:l],build[bild],andhealth[helθ].Asamatteroffact,thesound[l]in

allthesefoursoundcombinationsdiffersslightly.The[l]in[li:f],occurringbeforeavowel,iscalledadear[l],andnodiacriticisneededtoindicateit;the[1]in[fi:l]and[bild],occurringattheendofawordorbeforeanotherconsonant,ispronounceddifferentlyfromtheclear[1]asin“leaf”.Itiscalleddark[?]andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[?]isusedtoindicateit.Theninthesoundcombination[helθ],thesound[l]isfollowedbytheEnglishdentalsound[θ],itspronunciationissomewhataffectedbythedentalsoundthatfollowsit.Itisthuscalledadental[l],andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[、]isusedtoindicateit.Itistranscribedas[helθ].

Anotherexampleistheconsonant[p].Weallknowthat[p]ispronounceddifferentlyinthetwowordspitandspit.Inthewordpit,thesound[p]ispronouncedwithastrongpuffofair,butinspitthepuffofairiswithheldtosomeextent.Inthecaseofpit,the[p]soundissaidtobeaspiratedandinthecaseofspit,the[p]soundisunaspirated.Thisdifferenceisnotshowninbroadtranscription,butinnarrowtranscription,asmallraised“h”isusedtoshowaspiration,thuspitistranscribedas[ph?t]andspitistranscribedas[sp?t].

4.HowaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?

答：Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintwoways:oneisintermsofmannerofarticulationandtheotherisintermsofplaceofarticulation.IntermsofmannerofarticulationtheEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingtypes:stops,fricatives,affricates,liquids,nasalsandglides.Intermsofplaceofarticulation,itcanbeclassifiedintofollowingtypes:bilabial,labiodental,dental,alveolar,palatal,velarandglottal.

5.WhatcriteriaareusedtoclassifytheEnglishvowels?

答：Vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfront,central,andbackaccordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighest.Tofurtherdistinguishmembersofeachgroup,weneedtoapplyanothercriterion,i.e.theopennessofthemouth.Accordingly,weclassifythevowelsintofourgroups:closevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowels,andopenvowels.Athirdcriterionthatisoftenusedintheclassificationofvowelsistheshapeofthelips.InEnglish,allthefrontvowelsandthecentralvowelsareunfoundedvowels,i.e.,withoutroundingthelips,andallthebackvowels,withtheexceptionof[a:],arerounded.Itshouldbenotedthatsomefrontvowelscanbepronouncedwithroundedlips.

6.A.Givethephoneticsymbolforeachofthefollowingsounddescriptions:

1)voicedpalatalaffricate

2)voicelesslabiodentalfricative

3)voicedalveolarstop

4)front,close,short

5)back,semi-open,long

6)voicelessbilabialstop

B.Givethephoneticfeaturesofeachofthefollowingsounds:

1)[t]2)[l]3)[?]4)[w]5)[?]6)[?]

答：A.(1)[?](2)[f](3)[d](4)[?](5)[?:](6)[p]

B.(1)voicelessalveolarstop(2)voicedalveolarliquid

(3)voicelesspalatalaffricate(4)voicedbilabialglide

(5)back,close,short(6)front,open

7.Howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?Whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferencebetween,say,[l]and[?],[ph]and[p],aphoneticianoraphonologist?Why?

答：(1)Bothphonologyandphoneticsareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage––thespeechsounds.Butwhilebotharerelatedtothestudyofsounds,,theydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonology,ontheotherhand,aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.

(2)Aphonologistwillbemoreinterestedinit.Becauseoneofthetasksofthephonologistsistofindoutrulethatgovernsthedistributionof[l]and[?],[ph]and[p].

8.Whatisaphone?Howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?Howareallophonesrelated

toaphoneme?

答：Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Aphonemeisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Forexample,thephoneme/l/inEnglishcanberealizedasdark[?],clear[l],etc.whichareallophonesofthephoneme/l/.

9.Explainwithexamplesthesequentialrule,theassimilationrule,andthedeletionrule.

答：Rulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguagearecalledsequentialrules.

TherearemanysuchsequentialrulesinEnglish.Forexample,ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Thatiswhy[lbik][lkbi]areimpossiblecombinationsinEnglish.Theyhaveviolatedtherestrictionsonthesequencingofphonemes.

Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.Assimilationofneighbouringsoundsis,forthemostpart,causedbyarticulatoryorphysiologicalprocesses.Whenwespeak,wetendtoincreasetheeaseofarticulation.This“sloppy”tendencymaybecomeregularizedasrulesoflanguage.

WeallknowthatnasalizationisnotaphonologicalfeatureinEnglish,i.e.,itdoesnotdistinguishmeaning.ButthisdoesnotmeanthatvowelsinEnglisharenevernasalizedinactualpronunciation;infacttheyarenasalizedincertainphoneticcontexts.Forexample,the[i:]soundisnasalizedinwordslikebean,green,team,andscream.Thisisbecauseinallthesesoundcombinationsthe[i:]soundisfollowedbyanasal[n]or[m].

Theassimilationrulealsoaccountsforthevaryingpronunciationofthealveolarnasal[n]insomesoundcombinations.Theruleisthatwithinaword,thenasal[n]assumesthesameplaceofarticulationastheconsonantthatfollowsit.WeknowthatinEnglishtheprefixin-canbeaddedtomaadjectivetomakethemeaningofthewordnegative,e.g.discreet–indiscreet,correct–incorrect.Butthe[n]soundintheprefixin-isnotalwayspronouncedasanalveolarnasal.Itissointhewordindiscreetbecausetheconsonantthatfollowsit,i.e.[d],isanalveolarstop,butthe[n]soundinthewordincorrectisactuallypronouncedasavelarnasal,i.e.[?];thisisbecausetheconsonantthatfollowsitis[k],whichisavelarstop.Sowecanseethatwhilepronouncingthesound[n],weare“copying”afeatureoftheconsonantthatfollowsit.

Deletionruletellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.Wehavenoticedthatinthepronunciationofsuchwordsassign,design,andparadigm,thereisno[g]soundalthoughitisrepresentedinspellingbytheletterg.Butintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,andparadigmatic,the[g]representedbythelettergispronounced.Therulecanbestatedas:Deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.Giventherule,thephonemicrepresentationofthestemsinsign–signature,resign–resignation,phlegm–phlegmatic,paradigm–paradigmaticwillincludethephoneme/g/,whichwillbedeletedaccordingtotheregularruleifnosuffixisadded.

10.Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures?Howdothemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesof

Englishfunctioninconveyingmeaning?

答：Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonation,andtone.ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning.Therearetwokindsofstress:wordstressandsentencestress.Forexample,ashiftofstressmaychangethepartofspeechofawordfromanoun,toaverbalthoughitsspellingremainsunchanged.Tonesarepitchvariationswhichcandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes.

Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,especiallyinalanguagelikeEnglish.Whenspokenindifferenttones,thesamesequenceofwordsmayhavedifferentmeanings.

Chapter3Morphology

1.Dividethefollowingwordsintotheirseparatemorphemesbyplacinga“+”betweeneachmorphemeandthenext:

a.microfilee.telecommunication

b.bedraggledf.forefather

c.announcementg.psychophysics

d.predigestionh.mechanist

答：a.micro+fileb.be+draggle+ed

c.announce+ment

d.pre+digest+ion

e.tele+communicate+ion

f.fore+father

g.psycho+physicsh.mechan+ist

2.Thinkofthreemorphemesuffixes,givetheirmeaning,andspecifythetypesofstemtheymaybesuffixedto.Giveatleasttwoexamplesofeach.

Model:-or

suffix:-or

meaning:thepersonorthingperformingtheaction

stemtype:addedtoverbs

examples:actor,“onewhoactsinstageplays,motionpictures,etc.”

translator,“onewhotranslates”

答：(1)suffix:-able

meaning:somethingcanbedoneorispossible

stemtype:addedtoverbs

examples:acceptable,“canbeaccepted”

respectable,“canberespected”

(2)suffix:-ly

meaning:functional

stemtype:addedtoadjectives

examples:freely.“adverbialformof…free?”

quickly,“adverbialformof'quick'”.

(3)suffix:-ee

meaning:thepersonreceivingtheaction

stemtype:addedtoverbs

examples:employee,“onewhoworksinacompany”

interviewee,“onewhoisinterviewed”

3.Thinkofthreemorphemeprefixes,givetheirmeaning,andspecifythetypesofstemtheymaybeprefixedto.Giveatleasttwoexamplesofeach.

Model:a-

prefix:a-

meaning:“without;not”

stemtype:addedtoadjectives

examples:asymmetric,“lackingsymmetry”asexual,“withoutsexorsexorgans”

答：(1)prefix:dis-

meaning:showinganopposite

stemtype:addedtoverbsornouns

examples:disapprove,“donotapprove”

dishonesty,“lackofhonesty”.

(2)prefix:anti-

meaning:against,opposedto

stemtype:addedtonounsoradjectives

examples:antinuclear,“opposingtheuseofatomicweaponsandpower”

antisocial,“opposedorharmfultothelawsandcustomsofan

organizedcommunity.”

(3)prefix:counter-

meaning:theoppositeof

stemtype:addedtonounsoradjectives.

examples:counterproductive,“producingresultsoppositetothoseintended”

counteract,“actagainstandreducetheforceoreffectof(sth.)”

4.Theitalicizedpartineachofthefollowingsentencesisaninflectionalmorpheme.Studyeachinflectionalmorphemecarefullyandpointoutitsgrammaticalmeaning.

Suemovesinhigh-societycirclesinLondon.

AtrafficwardenaskedJohntomovehiscar.

TheclubhasmovedtoFriday,February22nd.

Thebranchesofthetreesaremovingbackandforth.

答：(1)thethirdpersonsingular

(2)thepasttense

(3)thepresentperfect

(4)thepresentprogressive

5.Determinewhetherthewordsineachofthefollowinggroupsarerelatedtooneanotherbyprocessesofinflectionorderivation.

a)go,goes,going,gone

b)discover,discovery,discoverer,discoverable,discoverability

c)inventor,inventor?s,inventors,inventors?

d)democracy,democrat,democratic,democratize

答：(略)

6.Thefollowingsentencescontainbothderivationalandinflectionalaffixes.

Underlineallofthederivationalaffixesandcircletheinflectionalaffixes.

a)Thefarmer?scowsescaped.

b)Itwasraining.

c)Thosesocksareinexpensive.

d)Jimneedsthenewercopy.

e)Thestrongestrowercontinued.

f)Shequicklyclosedthebook.

g)Thealphabetizationwentwell.

答：(略)

Chapter4Syntax

1.Whatissyntax?

Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.

2.Whatisphrasestructurerule?

Thegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelements(i.e.specifiers,heads,andcomplements)thatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule.

ThephrasestructuralruleforNP,VP,AP,andPPcanbewrittenasfollows:NP→(Det)N(PP)...

VP→(Qual)V(NP)...

AP→(Deg)A(PP)...

PP→(Deg)P(NP)...

Thegeneralphrasalstructuralrule(XstandsfortheheadN,V,AorP):TheXPrule:XP→(specifier)X(complement)

3.Whatiscategory?Howtodetermineaword'scategory?

Categoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.

Todetermineaword'scategory,threecriteriaareusuallyemployed,namelymeaning,inflectionanddistribution.Aword'sdistributionalfactstogetherwithinformationaboutitsmeaningandinflectionalcapabilitieshelpidentifyitssyntacticcategory.

4.Whatiscoordinatestructureandwhatpropertiesdoesithave?

Thestructureformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctioniscalledcoordinatestructures.

Conjunctionexhibitsfourimportantproperties:

1)Thereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesthatcanappearpriorto

theconjunction.

2)Acategoryatanylevel(aheadoranentireXP)canbecoordinated.

3)Coordinatedcategoriesmustbeofthesametype.

4)Thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeofthe

elementsbeingconjoined.

5.Whatelementsdoesaphrasecontainandwhatroledoeseachelementplay?

Aphraseusuallycontainsthefollowingelements:head,specifierandcomplement.Sometimesitalsocontainsanotherkindofelementtermedmodifier.

Theroleofeachelement

Head:

Headisthewordaroundwhichaphraseisformed.

Specifier:

Specifierhasbothspecialsemanticandsyntacticroles.Semantically,ithelpstomakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead.Syntactically,ittypicallymarksaphraseboundary.

Complement:

Complementsarethemselvesphrasesandprovideinformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead.

Modifier:

Modifiersspecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesoftheheads.

6.Whatisdeepstructureandwhatissurfacestructure?

Therearetwolevelsofsyntacticstructure.Thefirst,formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead'ssubcategorizationproperties,iscalleddeepstructure(or

D-structure).Thesecond,correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations,iscalledsurfacestructure(orS-structure).

7.Indicatethecategoryofeachwordinthefollowingsentences.

a)Theoldladygotoffthebuscarefully.

DetANVPDetNAdv

b)Thecarsuddenlycrashedontotheriverbank.

DetNAdvVPDetN

c)Theblindingsnowstormmightdelaytheopeningoftheschools.

DetANAuxVDetNPDetN

d)Thisclothfeelsquitesoft.

DetNVDegA

（以下8-12题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图,仅供参考）

8.Thefollowingphrasesincludeahead,acomplement,andaspecifier.Drawtheappropriatetreestructureforeach.

a)richinminerals

XP(AP)→head(rich)A+complement(inminerals)PP

b)oftenreaddetectivestories

XP(VP)→specifier(often)Qual+head(read)V+complement(detectivestories)NP

c)theargumentagainsttheproposals

XP(NP)→specifier(the)Det+head(argument)N+complement(againsttheproposals)PP

d)alreadyabovethewindow

XP(VP)→specifier(already)Deg+head(above)P+complement(thewindow)

NP9.Thefollowingsentencescontainmodifiersofvarioustypes.Foreachsentence,firstidentifythemodifier(s),thendrawthetreestructures.（划底线的为动词的修饰语，斜体的为名词的修饰语）

a)Acrippledpassengerlandedtheairplanewithextremecaution.

b)Ahugemoonhungintheblacksky.

c)Themanexaminedhiscarcarefullyyesterday.

d)Awoodenhutnearthelakecollapsedinthestorm.

10.Thefollowingsentencesallcontainconjoinedcategories.Drawatreestructurefor

eachofthesentences.（划底线的为并列的范畴）

a)Jimhaswashedthedirtyshirtsandpants.

b)Helenputonherclothesandwentout.

c)Maryisfondofliteraturebuttiredofstatistics.

11.Thefollowingsentencesallcontainembeddedclausesthatfunctionas

complementsofaverb,anadjective,aprepositionoranoun.Drawatreestructure

foreachsentence.（划底线的为补语从句）

a)YouknowthatIhatewar.

b)GerrybelievesthefactthatAnnaflunkedtheEnglishexam.

c)ChriswashappythathisfatherboughthimaRolls-Royce.

d)Thechildrenarguedoverwhetherbatshadwings.

12.Eachofthefollowingsentencescontainsarelativeclause.Drawthedeep

structureandthesurfacestructuretreesforeachofthesesentences.（划底线的为关系从句）

a)Theessaythathewrotewasexcellent.

b)Herbertboughtahousethatsheloved

c)Thegirlwhomheadoresmajorsinlinguistics.

13.Thederivationsofthefollowingsentencesinvolvethei