1语言的普遍特征

1.语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性culturaltransmission2。语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人济功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娱乐功能recreatinal元语言功能metalingual.语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学Morphology句法学syntax语义学semantics语用学pragmatics.现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinanddesaussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语languageandparole，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语.语法创始人：NoamChomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competenceandperformanceWhichofthefollowingstatementscanbeusedtodescribedisplacement.oneoftheuniquepropertiesoflanguage:wecaneasilyteachourchildrentolearnacertainlanguagewecanuseboth'shu'and'tree'todescribethesamething.wecanuselanguagetorefertosomethingnotpresentwecanproducesentencesthathaveneverbeenheardbefore..Whatisthemostimportantfunctionoflanguage?interpersonalphaticinformatived.metallingual.Thefunctionofthesentence"Aniceday,isn'tit?"is__ainformativephaticdirectiveperformative4.Thedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformanceisproposedby__asaussurehallidaychomskythepragueschool5.Whoputforwardthedistinctionbetweenlanguageandparole?saussurechomskyhallidaydanomymous第二节语音学.发音器官由声带thevocalcords和三个回声腔组成.辅音consonant：thereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltract..辅音的发音方式爆破音completeobstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞辅音partialobstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates等.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征aspiration.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6双元音diphthongs,有元音过渡vowelglidesArticulatoryphoneticsmainlystudies__.thephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeechtheperceptionofsoundsthecombinationofsoundstheproductionofsoundsThedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesin__theplaceofarticulationb.theobstructionfairstreamthepositionofthetonguetheshapeofthelipsWhatisthecommonfactorofthethreesounds:p,ktvoicelessspreadc.voicedd.nasalWhatphoneticfeaturedistinguishthepinpleaseandthepinspeak?voicingaspirationc.roundnessd.nasalityWhichofthefollowingisnotadistinctivefeatureinEnglish?a.voicingb.nasalapproximationaspiration.Thephonologicalfeaturesoftheconsonantkare__voicedstopvoicelessstopvoicedfricativevoicelessfricative.pisdivverentfromkin__themannerofarticulationtheshapeofthelipsthevibrationofthevocalcordsd.thepalceofarticualtion.Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsin__a.aspirationb.nasalityobstructionvoicing第三节音位学phonology.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。.音位phoneme：最小语音单位.音位变体allophones:读音差别.对比性分布：如果两个音段出现在同一个语音环境中，而且产生了两个不同的单词，.互补性分布；如果两个基本相似的音段绝不会出现在相同的语音环境中，那么它们之间就是互补性分布的关系，如送气p绝不会出现在s之后，不送气的p绝不会出现在词首.音节syllable，分为节首onset，节峰peak，节尾coda.辅音群:一般作为音节节首的辅音群不能超过三个福音，节尾不能超过4个.最小语音对minimalpairsI.IntroductionWhatisLanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.WhatisLinguistics（语言学）Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.meBasicDistinctions（区分）inLinguisticsSpeechandWritingOnegeneralprinciple（原则）oflinguisticanalysisistheprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Writinggiveslanguagenewscope（范畴）andusesthatspeechdoesnothave.Descriptive（描述性）orPrescriptive（说明性）Alinguisticstudyisdescriptiveifitdescribesandanalysesfactsobserved;itisprescriptiveifittriestolaydownrulesfor"correct"behavior.Synchronic（共时）andDiachronic（历时）StudiesThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudyandThedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Langue（语言）andParole（言语）ThisisadistinctionmadebytheSwisslinguistF.DeSaussure（索绪尔）earlylastcentury.languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualized（实际的）language,orrealizationoflangue.Competence（能力）andPerformance（行为）Competenceistheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances（发声）.4.TheScopeofLinguisticsGenerallinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageasawhole.Phonetics（语音学）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.Phonology（音韵学）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthesoundpatternsoflanguages.Morphology（词法）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestheformofwords.Syntax（句法）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestherulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentences.Semantics（语义学）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthemeaningoflanguage.Appliedlinguistics（应用语言学）isthestudyoftheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthemind.HistoricalLinguistics（历史语言学）isthestudyoflanguagechanges.Anthropologicallinguistics（人文语言学）usesthetheoriesandmethodsofanthropologytostudylanguagevariationandlanguageuseinrelationtotheculturalpatternsandbeliefsofman.Neurolinguistics（神经语言学）studiestheneurologicalbasisoflanguagedevelopmentanduseinhumanbeings.Mathematicallinguistics（数学语言学）studiesthemathematicalfeaturesoflanguage,oftenemployingmodelsandconceptsofmathematics.Computationallinguistics（计算语言学）isanapproachtolinguisticsinwhichmathematicaltechniquesandconceptsareapplied,oftenwiththeaidofacomputer.II.Phonetics（语音学）scopeofphoneticsSpeechsoundsmaybestudiedfromdifferentangles,thuswehaveatleastthreebranchesofphonetics:Articulatoryphonetics（发音语音学）wemayexaminethewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinate调）intheprocess.Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）wemaylookintotheimpressionaspeakermakesonthehearerasmediated（调节）bytheear,theauditorynerve（神经）andthebrain.Acousticphonetics（声学语音学）westudythephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmitted（传送）betweenmouthandear.ThevocalorgansThevocalorgansmaybeviewedasconsistingofthreeparts,theinitiatoroftheair-stream,（气流发生器官）theproducerofvoice（声音发生器官）andtheresonatingcavities.（声音共振器官）Consonants（辅音）Placesofarticulation（发音部位）：bilabial,（双唇）Labiodentals,（唇齿）dental,（齿）alveolar,（齿龈）retroflex,（卷舌）palate-alveolar,（上齿龈）palatal,（上颚）velar,（软腭）uvular,（小舌）glottal（声门）Mannersofarticulation:plosive,（暴破）nasal,（鼻音）trill,（颤音）lateral,（边音）fricative,（摩擦）approximant,（近似音）affricate（破擦）Vowels（元音）Theclassificationofvowels:theheightoftongueraising（high,mid,low）,thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue（front,central,back）,andthedegreeofliprounding（rounded,unrounded）Phonology（音韵学）phonemes（音素）：adistinctive（有区别的）soundinalanguage.Allophones（音位变体）：Thenondistinctivesoundsaremembersofthesamephoneme.Minimalpairs（最小对立体）： wordformswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.Freevariation（自由变异）：Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironment（环境），theydoesnotproduceadifferentwordform,butmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword.Complementarydistribution（补充分类）：Notallthespeechsoundsoccurinthesameenvironment.Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment.6.Suprasegmentalphonology（超音段音位）：thestudyofphonologicalproperties（性质）ofunitslagerthanthesegment-phoneme.Theyaresyllable（音节），stress,（重音）wordstress,sentencestress.pitch（音调）andintonation（语调）.Morphology（词法）inflection（构形法）：thegrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes.（屈折词缀）Word-formation（构词）：theprocesses（过程）ofwordvariationssignalinglexicalrelationships.（表明词法关系）Theyarecompound（合成）andderivation（派生）.Morpheme（词素）： thesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent.Allomorph（同质异象变体）：somemorphemeshaveconsiderablevariation,forinstance,alternateshapesorphoneticforms.Typesofmorphemes:Theyareroots,（词根）affix（词缀）andstem（词干）.Lexicon语言词汇）：initsmostgeneralsense,issynonymouswithvocabulary.Closed-classwords（封闭性）andopen-classwords（开放性）：theformerwhosemembershipisfixedorlimitedandthelatterwhosemembershipisinprinciple（实际上）indefiniteorunlimited.Wordclass（词性）：Itdisplaysawiderrangeofmorepreciselydefinedclasses.Lexeme（词位）：thesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersmallerunits.Idiom（习语，成语）：Mostphrasallexemesareidioms.Itisespeciallytrueforasequenceofwords（词序）whichissemantically（语义上）andoftensyntactically（句法上）restricted.（限制）Collocation（搭配）：thehabitual（习惯的）co-occurrences（同时出现）ofindividuallexicalitems.Syntax（句法）Positionalrelationorwordorder（词序）：thesequential（顺序）arrangementofwordsinalanguage.Constructionorconstituent（句子结构）：theoverallprocessofinternal（内部）organizationofagrammaticalunit.Syntacticfunction（句法功能）：therelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.Thenamesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicates,modifiers,（修饰语）complements（补语），etc.Category（范畴）：Itreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Thecategoriesofthenounincludenumber,gender,caseandcountability.Phrase:asingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclause.Clause:agroupofwordswithitsownsubjectandpredicate,ifitisincludedinalargersentence.Sentence:Itistheminimumpartoflanguagethatexpressesacompletethought.VI.SemanticsConceptualismormentalism（概念主义）:FollowingF.DeSaussure（索学尔）'s"sign"theory,thelinguisticsignissaidtoconsistofasignifier（所指）andsignified（被指），i.e.,asoundimageandaconcept,likedbyapsychological（心理的）"associative"bond.（相关联系）Mechanism（机械主义）：Somelinguists,Bloomfield,（布鲁费尔德）forexample,turnedtosciencetocounter（反）-acttheprecioustheoriesandthisleadstowhatcallthemechanisticapproach（方法）.Thenatureofthistheoryhasnothingtodowiththescientificstudyofmentalphenomena（.智力现象）Contextualism（语境主义）：Itisbasedonthepresumption（假定）thatonecanderivemeaningfromorreduceittoobservablecontext.Behaviorism（行为主义）:Behavioristsattempttodefine（定义）themeaningofalanguageformas"thesituation（情景）inwhichthespeakerutters（说话）itandtheresponse（反应）itcallsforthinthehearer."functionalism（功能主义）：functionalistsasrepresented（代表）bythePragueschool（布拉格学派）linguistsandneo-Firthian（新弗斯）linguists,approachtheproblemfromanentirelyneworientation（方法）.Theyargue（争辩）thatmeaningcouldonlybeinterpreted（解释）fromitsuseorfunctioninsociallife.Senserelationships:Whilereferencedealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelements,words,sentences,etc.,andthenon-linguisticworldofexperience,senserelatestothecomplexsystemofrelationshipsthatholdbetweenthelinguisticelementsthemselves.Theyincludesynonymy（同义词），antonym（反义词），hyponymy（下层次）Polysemy（一词多义）andHomonymy（同音异义词）Semanticanalysis:Itincludes1）componential（成分）analysiswhichdefinesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofsemanticcomponents.（意义成分）2）predication（表述）analysisinwhichthemeaningofasentenceisnotmerelythesumofthemeaningsofthewordswhichcomposeit.3）relationalcomponentsinwhichthesemanticanalysisofsomewordspresentsacomplicatedpicture,becausetheyshowrelationsbetweentwoandperhapsmoreterms.VII.Languagevariation（语言变化）Lexicalchange（词汇的变化）：changesinlexis.Invention:（新造词）newentities.泠、、Compounding'合成词）Newwordsaresometimesconstructedbycombiningtwooldwords.Blending:（混合词）：Itisarelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtworootsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstrootandthefinalpartofthesecondr