欧洲委员会-能源转型中的区块链解决方案（英）-

Blockchainsolutions

fortheenergytransition

Experimentalevidenceand

policyrecommendations

FulliG.,NaiFovinoI.

AndreadouN.,GeneiatakisD.,GiulianiR.,

JoannyG.,KotsakisV.,KounelisI.,

LucasA.,MartinT.,O'NeillG.,SachyM.,

SoupionisY.,SteriG.

2022

EUR31008EN

ABOUTJRC

ThispublicationisaScienceforPolicyreportbytheJointResearchCentre(JRC),theEuropeanCommission’sscienceandknowledgeservice.Itaimstoprovideevidence-basedscientificsupporttotheEuropeanpolicymakingprocess.ThescientificoutputexpresseddoesnotimplyapolicypositionoftheEuropeanCommission.NeithertheEuropeanCommissionnoranypersonactingonbehalfoftheCommissionisresponsiblefortheusethatmightbemadeofthispublication.ForinformationonthemethodologyandqualityunderlyingthedatausedinthispublicationforwhichthesourceisneitherEurostatnorotherCommissionservices,usersshouldcontactthereferencedsource.ThedesignationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialonthemapsdonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartoftheEuropeanUnionconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,territory,cityorareaorofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries.

Contactinformation:jrc-e3-secretariat@ec.europa.eu

EUScienceHub:https://joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu/

JRC128651

EUR31008EN

PDFISBN978-92-76-49089-0ISSN1831-9424doi:10.2760/62246

Luxembourg:PublicationsOfficeoftheEuropeanUnion,2022

©EuropeanUnion,2022

ThereusepolicyoftheEuropeanCommissionisimplementedbytheCommissionDecision2011/833/EUof12December2011onthereuseofCommissiondocuments(OJL330,14.12.2011,p.39).Exceptotherwisenoted,thereuseofthisdocumentisauthorisedundertheCreativeCommonsAttribution4.0International(CCBY4.0)licence(/licenses/by/4.0/).Thismeansthatreuseisallowedprovidedappropriatecreditisgivenandanychangesareindicated.ForanyuseorreproductionofphotosorothermaterialthatisnotownedbytheEU,permissionmustbesoughtdirectlyfromthecopyrightholders.

Allcontent©EuropeanUnion,2022

Howtocitethisreport:FulliG.,NaiFovinoI.AndreadouN.,GeneiatakisD.,GiulianiR.,JoannyG.,KotsakisV.,KounelisI.,LucasA.,MartinT.,O'NeillG.,SachyM.,SoupionisY.,SteriG.,Blockchainsolutionsfortheenergytransition:experimentalevidenceandpolicyrecommendations,EUR31008EN,PublicationsOfficeoftheEuropeanUnion,Luxembourg,2022,ISBN978-92-76-49089-0,doi:10.2760/62246,JRC128651.

I

TABLEOFCONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS1

ABSTRACT2

EXECUTIVESUMMARY3

1.INTRODUCTION6

2.WHATISENERGYDIGITALISATIONANDWHYISITIMPORTANT?7

2.1Impactofdigitalisationonenergydemand8

2.2Impactofdigitalisationonpowersupply9

2.3Impactoffulldigitalinterconnectionofenergysystems9

3.BLOCKCHAINTECHNOLOGIES,DIGITALDECADEANDGREENDEAL10

4.HOWBLOCKCHAINCANSUPPORTENERGYDIGITALISATION14

5.ENERGYINDUSTRYBLOCKCHAINPILOTINGLANDSCAPE15

6.MOSTPROMISINGUSE-CASESANDEXPERIMENTALRESULTS19

6.1Smartmetering,billingandsecurity20

6.2Fosteringofenergycommunities20

6.3Certificationoforiginofenergyproduction22

6.4Supporttheimplementationofflexibilityservices23

6.5Electromobilityscenarios24

6.6Use-Casedeploymentandresults25

7.CONCLUSIONS28

7.1Trends,issuesandlessonslearned28

7.2Policyandregulatoryrecommendations30

7.3Finalremarks33

REFERENCES34

Listofabbreviations36

Listoffigures37

1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

WewouldliketothankourDGENERcolleagues,ManuelSanchezJimenezandConstantinaFiliou,forinvitingustoundertakethisinterestingandchallengingproject.

WealsowishtothankourECcolleaguesCharlesCleretdeLangavant(ENER),LukasRepa(CNECT),EnriqueArestiGutierrezandLuisMiguelVegaFidalgo(GROW),HelenaHernnas(ECFIN),AlexandruCiungu(ECFIN)andAsaLindenOhannesson(ECFIN)fortheircommentsandfeedbackprovidedatdifferentstagesofdraftingofthisdocument.

OurgratitudegoesalsotoMarceloMaseraandJean-PierreNordvik(JRC)fortheircontinuoussupportthroughoutthewholeprojectexecution.

Finally,thankstootherJRCcolleaguesCarineNieuweling,DimitriosThomasandAnnaMengolinifortheirassistance,commentsandinsights,andMassimilianoGusminiforhisgraphicdesignsupport.

Authors

Editingteam:IgorNaiFovino,GianlucaFulli,GillianO'Neill

Projectteam:NikoletaAndreadou,DimitriosGeneiatakis,RaimondoGiuliani,GeraldineJoanny,VangelisKotsakis,IoannisKounelis,AlexandreLucas,TaniaMartin,MarcoSachy,YannisSoupionis,GarySteri,

2

ABSTRACT

ThisreportsummarisesthemainoutcomesofseveralexperimentalstudiescarriedoutbytheJointResearchCentreonblockchainsolutionsforenergysystems.ItpresentsconsiderationsandrecommendationsforEuropeanpolicymakersregardingblockchaindeploymentacrosstheenergyvaluechain.

Theoutcomesofthisreportcomefromamulti-yearprojectfundedthroughanexplicitrequestoftheEuropeanParliamenttotheEuropeanCommission,withexperimentsconductedintheJointResearchCentresmartgridsandcybersecuritylaboratories.

3

EXECUTIVESUMMARY

Europe’sfuturewillbestronglyinfluencedbythesuccessfulachievementofthetwindigitalandgreentransitions.TheCovid-19pandemiccrisishasclearlymagnifiedtherolethatdigitalandenergytechnologieshaveonpeople,businessesandtheeconomy.Wesawhowheavilywerelyondigitalandenergysolutionstoenableustotelework,heatourhomes,manageourhospitals,andrunourbusinesses.MonitoringtheevolutionofdigitaltechnologiestoidentifythemostpromisinganddisruptiveonesisofprimaryimportanceintheefforttosupportandspeeduptheraceoftheEuropeanUniontowardsagreenerandmoresustainablefuture.

Anemergingtechnologytosupportthetwindigitalandgreentransitions

Amongthemanydigitaltechnologiesinuseandindevelopment,blockchaintechnologies¹areprovingthattheyhavealottoofferinsupportingandstreamliningevidence-baseddecision-makinginthefieldsofclimateandsustainableenergy.Blockchaincanbeimaginedasanelectronicregisterdistributedoveramyriadofcomputersandnodes,whereeachnodecanupdateandstoreacopyoftheregister.

Somereasonswhyblockchainisappealingforapplicationsintheclimateandenergysectorsare:

•Disintermediation:Currentlymostoftheworlds’financial,energyandotheroperationsareenabledbyintermediariessuchasbanksandmarketoperators.Blockchainremovestheneedforsuchtrustedthirdpartiestooverseeandvalidateinformation/valueexchanges.

•Transparencyandverifiability:transactionsre-cordedonablockchainareabletobecheckedindependently.Illicittransactionsaredetectedandexcludedfromtheblockchain,renderingitimpossibleforthepartiesinvolvedtoperformmaliciousoperations.

•Immutabilityandsecurity:itisalmostimpos-sibletomodifyortamperwithinformationrecordedonablockchain(evenwhenmanynodesareattackedatthesametime).

State-of-playofblockchainintheenergysector

In2018,theEuropeanParliamentrequestedtheCommissiontoinvestigatetheimpactofblockchainontheenergysector.TheJointResearchCentre(theEuropeanCommission’sscienceandknowledgeservice)consequentlyconductedadesktopandexperimentalprojectanalysisofhowblockchaincanenable,andpotentiallyrevolutionise,theenergymarketandsystemoperations.

Thestudyfoundthat:

•thereisaclearinterestamongenergyanddigitalindustriestoexploitthepo-tentialofblockchain.Pilotsanduse-cas-esarealreadyflourishingallaroundEurope.In-housetestsontechnologicalperformanc-esandscalabilityconfirmedthepotentialfortheseindustriestouseblockchain.However,consumersarenotyetfullyengagedindigitalenergyprojectsandindependentaggregatorsstillfaceentrybarrierstoparticipateinelectricitymarkets.

•Thesustainabilityandtheenergyfoot-printofblockchainisaheavilydebated,butnotalwayswell-analysed,issue.

•Blockchainapplicationsforhigher-levelenergysystemfunctionalities(i.e.appli-cationsrunningonlayersnotdealingwithphysicalpowergridoperations)aremorenumerousandmature.

•Blockchainapplicationslinkedtoenergysys-temoperations(i.e.directlyimpactingphys-icalpowergridsoperations,suchaspowerdispatching)areinsteadlessdeveloped.

NOTES

¹Throughoutthisreport,weusethesub-setterm‘blockchain’insteadofthemorecomprehensiveterm‘DistributedLedgerTechnology’,DLT.Ablockchainisachainofdatablocksseriallyinterconnectedoneaftertheother,whereasDLTincludesotherdataarchitecturesbeyondthechainofblocks,suchasgraphsandothersolutions.WeusethissimplificationbecausemostoftheDLTapplications,alsointheenergysector,arebasedonblockchain.

4

Thisismainlyduetolackofadequateguar-anteesintermsofsafety,certification,andstandardisation.

•Blockchainshowshighpotentialforuseasthedistributeddrivingbrainofanener-gycommunity.Blockchainappearssuitedtosupportthefinancialsettlementofenergytransactions,energytradinginlocalorwidermarkets,energymanagementandflexibilityservicesprovisioning,andseveralcertificationandbillingprocesses.

•Adequateandinteroperablesmartmeter-inginfrastructureisindispensablefortheactivationofblockchainservicesforenergycommunitiesandpeer-to-peerenergytrading.

Recommendationspresentedbycluster

Duringthestudy,itbecameclearthatseveralaspectsandinterfacesmuststillbeclarifiedtosuccessfullygoverntheintroductionofblockchain-basedelectricitydeliveryoptionsandservices.Tothisend,drawinguponthedesktopandexperimentalresearchconducted,thefollowingclustersofrecommendationstoaddressemergingtrendsandissueswereidentified:

Security,privacy&identity

•Requirementstoensurethatblockchainappli-

cationsmaintainadequatecybersecurityand

electricitysupplysecuritylevelsshouldbede-

fined.

•Mechanismstosafeguarddatasecurityandintegrityshouldbefurtherdeveloped.

•Datashouldbeprotected‘bydesign’and

sharedonlyasneededtoactivateconsented

blockchain-enabledservices.

•Effectiveintegrationstrategiesbetweendata

protectionandcybersecurityinitiativesare

needed.

•Theresilienceandsecurityofmoderntele-

communicationnetworksandtheInternet

shouldbeassessed,fromacybersecurityper-

spective,fortheimpactofenergydigitalisa-

tion.

•Cybersecuritycertificationschemesshould

increasinglycoverboththedomainofblock-

chaincoreinfrastructureandthedomainof

enduserapplicationsanddevices(e.g.Inter-

netofThings).

•Strongauthenticationschemesshouldbeem-

beddedinthedesignofblockchainsolutions.

Recommendationsbyclustertowardsblockchaindeploymentforenergytransition

Source:EC

5

Dataaccess,liabilityandmarkets

•Robustenergydatahubs/platforms,withagreedrulesfordataaccessanduse,shouldbedesigned.

•Marketrulesshouldbeadaptedtotakeintoaccounttheemergenceofnew‘automatedagent’actors.

•Decentralisedresponsibilitiesofelectricitysupplyanddeliveryshouldbeclearlydefinedandallocated.

Fairnessandacceptance

•Fairnessshouldbeaguidingprincipleforde-signingmoredecentralisedenergymarketsnotdiscriminatinganyplayer,betheypeopleorbusinesses.

•Consumersshouldbefurtherinvolvedandin-centivisedtoinvestinblockchainprojects.

•Abalanceshouldbefoundbetweenconsumerempowermentandprotection.

Scalabilityandsustainability

•TheEUandnationallegislatorsshouldkeepdevelopingacomprehensivepro-innovationlegalframeworkfordigitalapplications.

•Regulatoryexperimentationsshouldbefur-theradopted.

•Analysesontheenergyfootprintoftheblock-chainsolutionsundertesting/deploymentshouldalwaysaccompanythestudiesonthescalabilityandperformancerequirements.

Interoperabilityandstandards

•TheEUandMemberStatesstakeholdersshouldcontinuetheirinvolvementintheworkofinternationalstandardorganisations.

•Properstandardsandinteroperabilityofblockchain-enableddevices(includingmeters,sensors,andappliances)shouldbepromoted.

NextstepsfortheEUtoexploitblockchainforenergy

TheEUandnationallegislatorsareencouragedtokeepdevelopingacomprehensivepro-innovationlegalframeworkfordigitalapplications,alsobetterregulatingblockchain-enableddigitalassetsandsmartcontracts.

TheECDigitalisationofEnergyActionPlanrepresentsapowerfultoolboxtoimplementactionsforawiderdeploymentofdigital

technologies,includingblockchain,intheenergysector.

WhiletheDigitalTransformationisakeyenablertoreachtheGreenDealobjectives,aconsistentapproachintheregulationofseveralcross-cuttingsectors(energy,transport,financeetc.)isequallyneeded.

Itremainstobeseentowhatextentblockchaincansupportorsubvertbusinessmodelsinthetransitioningelectricitysystemsandmarkets.Indeed,blockchainrepresentsonlyoneoftheenablingtechnologiesofpowersysteminnovation,tobecombinedwithotherdigitaltechnologies,suchasincludingArtificialIntelligence,bigdata,andInternetofThings,toachievetheclimate-neutralityandsustainabilitytargets.

TheJointResearchCentresmartgridsandcybersecuritylaboratoriesstandreadytoscale-uptheirresearchactivitiesinsupportofpolicydecisionmakingandidentifyingcriticalissuesinthedeploymentofblockchainandotheremergingdigitalandenergytechnologies.

Blockchain

technologycanenable,andpotentiallyrevolutionise,theenergymarket

6

CHAPTER1

1.INTRODUCTION

Europe’sfuturewillbestronglyinfluencedbythesuccessfulachievementofthetwindigitalandgreentransitions.IdentifyingandembracingpotentialnewtechnologiescanhelpeveryEuropeancitizentobenefitfromdigitalopportunities.Inaddition,thesetransitionswillincreasetheEU’sresiliencebyreducingdependencyonthirdcountries,influencetheEU’sglobalpositioningontheglobalstage,andhelptheEUtoreachtargetedsustainabilitygoals.

Blockchain(asubsetofdistributedledgertechnologies,seealsofootnote1intheExecutiveSummary)hasbeenidentifiedasbeingpotentiallydisruptivebuthighlyrelevantforboostingthedigitalisationofEuropeansociety.Ononehand,theycouldheraldaneweraofdigitalservices,but,ontheotherhand,theirrobustness,security,scalabilityandsustainabilityarenotyetassured.

Blockchaintechnologyallowsentitiessuchaspeopleandorganisations,butalsomachinesandsoftware,toestablishsecureoperationalagreementsandtransactions.Thepossibilityofeliminatingtheuseofintermediariesbetweenproducersandconsumershasthepotentialtorevolutionisehowdigitalservicesarebuiltanddelivered.

In2018,theIndustry,ResearchandEnergyCommittee(ITRE)oftheEuropeanParliamenttaskedtheEuropeanCommissiontoconductastudyonthepotentialadvantagesanddisadvantagesrelatedtotheuseofblockchaintechnologiesintheenergyfield.

TheJointResearchCentre,theEuropeanCommission’sscienceandknowledgeservice,conductedthestudywhichincludedthedeploymentofblockchain-basedenergydistributiontest-bedsanduse-cases.Theresultsnotonlyconfirmedtheenormouspotentialofthistechnologyfortheenergysector,butalsomagnifiedtheneedforblockchainplatformstobegovernedbymorematureandstandardisedapproaches.Thiswouldenhancesafety,scalabilityandsecurityaspects,whicharekeyfactorswhendealingwithcriticalinfrastructures.

Thisreportisasummaryofthein-depthtwo

yearstudy.Itdoesnotpresentthedetailsof

thescientificexperimentsandresultsobtained,

forwhichtherelatedtechnicalreports[1][2][3]

[24]canbeconsulted.Instead,itoffersahigh-

levelviewofthepossibleuseofblockchain

technologiesintheenergysector,reflectingon

potentialadvantagesandpolicyneeds.

7

CHAPTER2

2.WHATISENERGYDIGITALISATIONANDWHYISITIMPORTANT?

DigitaltransformationiskeytoreachtheEU’sclimate-neutralitytargetsandisalreadyimpactingtheenergysystemdesignandoperation.TheEuropeanUnionrecentlyembracedambitiousoverarchingpoliticalinitiativesinthegreenanddigitalfields,whichhavestrongsynergies:

•TheEuropeanGreenDealistheEU’splanforsustainablegrowth.ItaimstocontributetoachievingtheParisAgreementobjectiveofkeepingtheglobaltemperatureincreasetobelow2°C[4]comparedtopre-industriallev-els.

•TheEUDigitalStrategyaddressescrucialdig-italisationissuesrelatingtoprivacy,security,safetyandethicalstandardsandpromotesthedeploymentofaninfrastructurefitforthefuture[5].

Theseambitionsplansincludenewactstoreinforce/complementdigitalenergy-relevantlegislativeactions–suchastheEnergyUnion/CleanEnergyPackage,theGeneralDataProtectionregulation,theDirectiveonsecurityofnetworkandinformationsystems,andmostrecentlytheDigitalisationofEnergyActionPlan(seealsoFigure1)[4][5][22].

Digitalisationintheenergysectorincludesthecreationanduseofcomputerisedinformationandprocessingofhugeamountsofdata,whichisgeneratedatallstagesoftheenergysupplychain.Therearegreatexpectationsforeverysegmentoftheenergyecosystem:households,prosumers,distribution,transmission,generationandretail,andisoftenstatedaslikelytoleadtoanenergysystemtransformation.

Digitalisationoffersthepotentialtoincreaseenergyefficiencythroughtechnologiesthat

FIGURE1

RecentEUlegislativeinitiativesonenergydigitalisation[6]

Source:EC

8

CHAPTER2

gatherandanalysedatabeforeusingittomakechangestothephysicalenvironment(eitherautomatically,orthroughhumanintervention).Itisfrequentlylinkedwith‘smart’energy,theInternetofThings(IoT)andBlockchaintechnology.Themaingoalofdigitalisationistoimproveefficiencythroughenablingbetter,cheaperandfastermonitoring,recoveryandmaintenanceoftheassetsandcomponentsthrough‘smarter’grids.Forinstance,smarthouseholdswillfacilitateownsolarenergyproduction,theInternetofThings(IoT)willintegratesmartappliancesforsavings,ancillarygridservices,andsmartchargingofElectric

Vehicles.

Thespeedofdigitalisationinenergyisincreasing.Investmentindigitaltechnologiesbyenergycompanieshasgrownsharplyoverthelastyears.Forinstance,accordingtotheInternationalEnergyAgency[16],globalinvestmentindigitalelectricityinfrastructureandsoftwarehasrisenbyover20%annuallysince2014,reachingUSD47billionin2016(Figure2).Thisdigitalinvestmentin2016wasalmost40%higherthaninvestmentingas-firedpowergenerationworldwide(USD34billion)andalmostequaltototalinvestmentinIndia’selectricitysector(USD55billion).

2.1Impactofdigitalisationon

energydemand

Theimpactofdigitalisationontransport,

buildingsandindustryisanundeniablefact.

Theavailabilityofconnectivityeverywhereand

theriseofartificialintelligencetechnologies

aremakingtheTransportsectorsmarter,with

enormousadvantagesinrelationtosafety

andefficiency.Inroadtransport,connectivity

isenablingnewmobilitysharingservices.In

combinationwithadvancementsinvehicle

automationandelectrification,digitalisation

couldresultinconsiderablebutuncertainenergy

andemissionsimpacts.Inthelongterm,under

abest-casescenarioofimprovedefficiency

throughautomationandride-sharing,andwith

apositiveinterplaybetweentechnology,policy

andbehaviour,roadtransportenergyusecould

potentiallydropbyabouthalf[17].Conversely,

ifefficiencyimprovementsdonotmaterialise

andreboundeffectsfromautomationresult

insubstantiallymoretravel,energyusecould

morethandouble.

Inbuildings,digitalisationcoulddecrease

energyusebyabout10%byusingreal-time

FIGURE2

Investmentsindigitalelectricityinfrastructureandsoftware[16]

Source:EC

NOTES

¹Digitalisation&Energy,InternationalEnergyAgency,2018,/reports/digitalisation-and-energy

²Arbib,J.andSeba,T.(2017).RethinkingTransportation2020-2030./transportation.

9

CHAPTER2

datatoimproveoperationalefficiency.Smartenergysystemsandthermostatscananticipatethebehaviourofoccupants(basedonpriorexperience)andusereal-timeweatherforecaststobetterpredictheatingandcoolingneeds[18].Smartlightingcandelivermorethanjustlightwhenandwhereitisneeded;light-emittingdiodescanalsocontainsensorslinkedtoothersystems–forexample,helpingtotailorheatingandcoolingservices.However,itisimportanttobecarefulwithdigitalisation:theproliferationofnewservicesandcomforts(forexample,theuseofstandbypowerbyidledevices)couldoffsetpotentialsavings.

Inindustry,manycompanieshavealonghistoryofusingdigitaltechnologiestoimprovesafetyandincreaseproduction.Furthercost-effectiveenergysavingscanberealisedthroughadvancedprocesscontrols,andbycouplingsmartsensorsanddataanalyticstopredictequipmentfailure[20].

2.2Impactofdigitalisationonpowersupply

Energycompanieshavebeenusingdigitaltechnologiesforyears,helpingtoincreasetherecoveryoffossilresources,improveproductionprocesses,reducecostsandimprovesafety.Anoptimiseduseofdigitaltechnologiescoulddecreaseproductioncostsbetween10%and20%,whilerecoverableoilandgasresourcescouldbeboostedbyaround5%globally,withthegreatestgainsexpectedinshalegas[16].

Inthecoalindustry,digitaltechnologiesarebeingusedonasideingeologicalmodelling,andontheotherinmoreclassical'industrialprocesses'suchasautomationandpredictivemaintenance.

Inthepowersector,digitalisationhasthepotentialtosavearound$80billionperyear,orabout5%oftotalannualpowergenerationcosts[16],basedonthecurrentsystemdesignandenhancedglobaldeploymentofavailabledigitaltechnologiestoallpowerplantsandnetworkinfrastructure.Thiscanbeattainedbydroppingoperationandmaintenancecosts,improvingpowerplantandnetworkefficiency,reducingunplannedoutagesanddowntime,andextendingtheoperationallifetimeofassets[19].

2.3Impactoffulldigitalinterconnectionofenergysystems

Themostimportanttransformationalprospectivefordigitalisationisitsabilitytobreakdowntheboundariesbetweenenergysectors,increasingflexibilityandenablingintegrationacrossentiresystems.Attheheartofthistransformationistheelectricitysector,wheredigitalisationmakesthedistinctionbetweengenerationandconsumptionblurring,enablinganumberofinterrelatedopportunities.

AsreportedbyInternationalEnergyAgency(IEA)[16],smartdemandresponsecouldprovide185GWofsystemflexibility,theequivalentofthecombinedelectricitysupplycapacityofAustraliaandItaly.StillaccordingtotheIEA,“thiscouldsave$270billionofinvestmentsinnewelectricityinfrastructure”.Theimpactispotentiallysohugethatsomestudies[16]estimatethepotentialinvolvementofonebillionhouseholdsand11billionsmartappliancesinanewparadigmofinterconnectedelectricitysystems.

Digitalisationcanfacilitatetheintegrationofintermittingrenewablescontributingtooptimisationandsynchronisationofenergydemandwithweatherforecasts.IntheEuropeanUnionalone,increasedstorageanddigitallyenableddemandresponsecouldreducecurtailmentofsolarPVandwindpowerfrom7%to1.6%in2040,avoiding30milliontonnesofcarbondioxideemissionsin2040[16].

Similarly,thesamedigitalandAItechnologies,ifappliedtothevehiclesmart-chargingdomaincouldprovidefurtherflexibilitytothegridwhilesavingbetween$100billionand$280billioninavoidedinvestmentinnewelectricityinfrastructurebetween2016and2040[16].

Itisclearhow,inthiscontext,newtools