二语习得论文

ifCollegeofForeignLanguagesandLiteratureNorthwestNormalUniversity题目：MotivationandSecondLanguageAcquisition班级：12级英语5班姓名：王文秀任课教师：曹依民提交日期：2015年7月3日评语及成绩：签名：日期：MotivationandSecondLanguageAcquisition摘要在对第二语言学习的研究中，学习动机被认为是语言学习者个体因素中最具能动性的因素之一，它受到了众多研究者和教育工作者的关注。随着全球化的发展，第二语言的重要性显而易见。这就要求我们要深入研究了解动机与第二语言学习。本文将从理论和实际应用的角度研究第二语言习得中的动机问题。本文先从学习动机的定义出发阐述不同语言学家对动机不同角度的定义，包括被语言学家公认为合理的由Gardner&Lambert所下的定义，以及从人本主义角度出发的马斯洛的需求理论中对动机的定义，从而发现这些定义的局限性。在阐述定义的基础上，文章从行为主义、人本主义及认知角度分别运用强化理论、需求理论及归因理论来研究及分析动机，说明对第二语言研究的意义。随后采用语言学家Keller对影响学习动机的四大主要因素的划分，从兴趣、相关性、期待及对结果的满意度简要阐述影响学习的因素及其影响。本文旨在帮助第二语言学习者意识到动机在二语习得的重要性。关键字：动机，第二语言习得，定义，影响因素AbstractMotivationisoneoftheimportantaffectivefactorswidelystudiedonthesecondlanguageacquisitionbylanguagelearningresearchersinthepastyears.Withthedevelopmentofglobalization,theimportanceofthesecondlanguageacquisitionisobvious.Soitisnecessaryforustoprofoundmotivationandsecondlanguageacquisition.Thispaperwillresearchmotivationinthesecondlanguageacquisitionfromthetheorytoapplication,beginningwithitsdifferentdefinitionsgivenbydifferentlinguistsonthebaseofvarioustheories.Itincludesthewell-accepteddefinitiongivenbyGardner&Lambert,popularonedefinedbyMaslowfromhumanisticperspectiveandotherdefinitionsproposedrespectivelybydifferentlinguists.Intheprocess,thelimitationofthesedefinitionswillbefound.Then,thethesisfocusesonthestudyandanalysisofmotivationsfrombehavioral,humanisticandcognitiveperspectiveswiththeapplicationofreinforcementtheory,needtheoryandattributiontheorytoprovethesignificanceofresearchingsecondlanguageacquisition.Then,theauthoranalysesaffectingmotivationfactors，includinginterest,relevance,expectanceandsatisfactionoroutcomes,whicharedividedbylinguistKeller.Thispaperaimstohelplanguagelearnersrealizetheimportanceofmotivationinthesecondlanguageacquisition.Keywords:motivation,secondlanguageacquisition,definition,affectingfactors1.IntroductionMotivationplaysavitalroleintheforeignlanguageacquisition.Alotoflinguistsandpsychologistsbelievemotivationisonefactoraffectinglanguagelearningefficacy,theimpulsestimulatingpersonstoconductcertainactivities,akindofinnerpowerpromotingforeignlanguagelearning,andatypeofconsciousandpositivestateofpsychologyinlearningactivity.Regardedasoneimportantelementinlanguagelearning,motivationhasbeenexploredformorethanfiftyyearsbyalotoflinguists,buttheawkwardsituationstillexistsinpresentlanguagelearningsetting.Manyexpertshavedonealotofresearcharounditandmadecontributionstoit.Withthedevelopmentofglobalization,theimportanceofthesecondlanguageacquisitionisobvious.Soitisnecessaryforustoprofoundmotivationandsecondlanguageacquisition.Thispaperaimstoexploreandanalyseslanguagelearningmotivationfromdifferentperspectives:behaviorism,humanismandcognition,makingreferencetovariousclassificationsanddefinitionsofmotivation.Thethesisismadeupofsixpartsbesidesanintroduction,aconclusionandabibliography.Parttwoisliteraturereview.Partthreepresentssomebasictheoriesinmotivation.Inthispart,behaviorism,humanismandcognitionarediscussed.Partfourisanalysisoffactorsaffectingmotivationindetail.Itconsistsofinterest,relevance,expectanceandsatisfactionoroutcomes.Thispaperpaysattentiononthreequestions:Whatisthedefinitionofmotivation?Whatarefactorsaffectingmotivation?Howdoesthemotivationaffectsecondlanguageacquisition?LiteraturereviewAlthoughtheterm"motivation"isfrequentlyusedineducationcontexts,thereislittleagreementamongexpertsastoitsexactmeaning.Variousdefinitionsofmotivationhavebeenproposedoverthecourseofdecadesofresearch.WhatweconcernaboutmotivationismainlyconfinedtoEFLstudy,soweshouldputouremphasisonspecificcategory.Fromthemiddleof20thcentury,especiallyaround1990s,newdefinitionsappearedwiththedevelopmentsinpsychology.Motivationwasthenredefinedasadynamicprocessratherthanastaticinnerstate.However,thereisstilldisagreementaboutthedefinitionofmotivation.2.1DefinitionsofMotivationMotivationisoneofthemaindeterminantsofsecondlanguagelearningachievementand,accordingly,thelastthreedecadeshaveseenaconsiderableamountofresearchinvestigatingthenatureandroleofmotivationintheL2learningprocess.MuchofthisresearchhasbeeninitiatedandinspiredbytwoCanadianpsychologists,RobertGardnerandWallaceLambert,who,togetherwiththeircolleaguesandstudents,groundedmotivationresearchinasocialpsychologicalframework.Gardner'sDefinitionIt'sthefactthatGardner'sdefinitionofmotivationinSecondLanguageAcquisition(SLA)isthebestknown,frequently-quotedandunderrevisionwiththetimepassing.GardnerandLambert(1972)define‘motivation'intermsoftheL2learner'soverallgoalororientation.Gardneralsoproposedthatallthesethreecomponentswerenecessarytoproperlydescribemotivationinlanguagelearning.Anysingleoneofthemcannotreflecttruemotivation,sotheymustco-existwitheachother.Eightyearslater,GardnerandMaclntyre(1993)definedmotivationas"thedesiretoachieveagoal,effortextendedinthisdirectionandsatisfactionwiththetask."Gardner'sdefinitionisbasedonsocialpsychologystressingthesocialnatureofL2learning.Inhisview,apartfromlearninggrammarandlanguageskills,thelearningofanL2involvesanalterationinself-image,theadoptionofnewsocialandculturalbehaviorswhichhaveasignificantimpactonthesocialnatureofthelearner.Asweknow,Gardnerandhiscolleagues'researchesareconductedamongtypicallybilingualsetting---Canada,wherelearners'languagelearningisgreatlyinfluencedbythelearners'attitudetowardsthetargetlanguage,thereforethereisinevitablelimitationsexistinginthisdefinitionbynature.Besidesitsshortcomings,Gardnerandhiscolleagueshadmadegreatcontributionstothemotivationresearchinthelate1980s;othertheoristsbegantochallengehistheoryandre-conceptualizetheconstructofL2learningmotivation.Brown'sDefinitionBrown(1981)identifiesthreetypesofmotivation:(1)globalmotivation,whichconsistsofageneralorientationtothegoaloflearningaL2;(2)situationalmotivation,whichvariesaccordingtothesituationinwhichlearningtakesplace(themotivationassociatedwithclassroomlearningisdistinctfromthemotivationinvolvedinnaturalisticlearning);(3)taskmotivation,whichisthemotivationforperformingparticularlearningtasks.2.1.3WilliamsandBurden'sDefinitionWilliamsandBurden(1997)definedmotivationas"astateofcognitiveandemotionalarousal,whichleadstoaconsciousdecisiontoact,andwhichgivesrisetoaperiodofsustainedintellectualand/orphysicaleffort,inordertoattainapreviouslysetgoalorgoals.”Inordertomakethisdefinitionmoreclearly,WilliamsandBurden(1997)presentedathree-stagemodelofinteractivefactorswithinthesocialcontext:reasonsfordoingsomething decidingtodosomething---sustainingtheeffortorpersisting.Fromthismodel,wecanseethatfirstlytheremustbesomereasonstoimpellearnerstoundertakeaparticularactivity;secondly,weshouldconsiderwhatisactuallyinvolvedindecidingtodosomethingandanindividualmayhavestrongreasonsfordoingsomethingbutwithouttakingactualaction;thirdly,peopleneedtosustaintheeffortrequiredtocompletetheactivity.Inthismodel,"decidingtodosomething"playsacentralrole.2.1.4Maslow'sDefinitionAccordingtoMaslow,"motivationisconstant,neverending,fluctuatingandcomplex,anditisanalmostuniversalcharacteristicofparticularlyeveryorganicstateofaffairs.”Andhis"needtheory"canclearlyandsatisfactorilyexplainthelanguagelearners'motivationinallthelearning2.1.5DornyeiandOtto'sDefinitionDornyeiandOtto(1998)statedthat"inageneralsense,motivationcanbedefinedasthedynamicallychanginginitiates,directs,coordinates,amplifies,cumulativearousalinapersonthatterminatesandevaluatesthecognitiveprocesseswherebyinitialwishesanddesiresareselected,prioritized,operationalizedandsuccessfullyorunsuccessfullyactedout"Inthisdefinition,motivationisviewedasadynamicprocessinwhichmanyvariablesinfluencethelearner'sperformancebuttheydonotmentionthesustainingofthelearningmotivation.2.1.6Keller'sDefinitionKeller(1983)definedmotivationas"Motivationreferstothechoicespeoplemakeastowhatexperiencesorgoalstheywillapproachoravoid,andthedegreeofefforttheywillexertinthisrespect."Besidesdefinitionsgivenabove,KanferandAckerman(1989)madeitmoreexplicitbydefiningmotivationas"thedirectionofattentionaleffort,theproportionoftotalattentionaleffortdirectedtothetask(intensity),andtheextenttowhichattentionalefforttowardthetaskismaintainedovertime(orpersistence)."Oxforddefinedmotivationas"whatmakesstudentswanttolearnlanguagesandwhatcausesthemtoputforththeefforttopersistinthisdifficultadventure"(Oxford,1996,p.1).AccordingtoH.WBernard,"motivationreferstoallthosephenomenawhichareinvolvedinthestimulationofactiontowardsparticularobjectiveswherepreviouslytherewaslittleornomovementtowardsthosegoals."Inviewofallthesedefinitions,wecangettheinformationthatlanguagelearningmotivationisthereasonforlearningthelanguage,thecentralforceorinnerpowerthatimpulsespeopletogointhelanguagelearningprocess,howmuchconsciousintellectualandphysicaleffortthelearnersmaketoattainapreviouslysetgoalandhowlongthelearnerkeepsthiseffort.TheoriesonMotivationMotivationisavastandcomplicatedsubjectwithmanytheoriesineducationalpsychology.Themainapproachesarebehavioral,humanisticandcognitiveones,whichhighlightdifferentdimensionsofmotivation.However,thereisnoabsolutely,straightforwardlyandunanimouslyacceptedconceptofmotivation,letalonethedescriptionofitsnaturewithinoneframework.Differentfromtheinstincttheorystudyingtheinnatecharacteristicsofmotivationborninhumanbeings,thebehaviorismattachesmoreimportancetotheexternalfactorsforthestudyofmotivation.BehaviorismBehaviorism,atheoryaboutanimalandhumanlearningwaywhichonlyfocusesonobjectivelyobservablebehaviorsanddiscountsmentalactivities,hasanimportantimpactonpsychology,educationandlanguageteaching.BehavioristslikeSkinnertakethenotionthatbehaviorisafunctionofitsconsequences,sothelearnerswillrepeatthedesiredbehaviorifpositivereinforcement(apleasantconsequence)followthebehavior.BehavioristsprefertoexplainhumanbehaviorswithformulaS---R,believingmotivationisakindofimpulsiveforcearousedbyoutsidestimuli.AccordingtoSkinner,motivatedbehaviorresultsfromtheconsequencesofthesimilarpreviousbehaviorandinotherwords,theconsequencesofpreviousbehaviorinfluencelearners.Oncelearnersobtainpositivereinforcementforcertainbehavior,theytendtorepeatitwithvigor,viceversalearnerstendtoloseinterest,andevadetheirperformanceandstudy.Behavioralinterpretationsoflearningcanprovidereasonstoexplainwhysomelearnersreactfavorablytoparticularsubjectsbutdislikeothers.Somelearnersmayenteraclassroomwithafeelingofdelight,whileothersfeeluncomfortableoraversivetoit.B.F.Skinnersuggestedthatsuchdifferencescouldbetracedbacktotheirpreviousexperiences,arguingthatthelearnerwholovedthissubjecthadbeenshapedtorespondthatwaybyaseriesofpositiveexperienceswiththesubjectwhilethelearnerdislikingthesubjectmighthavesufferedaseriesofnegativeexperiences.Inbrief,reinforcementmethodsareprobablybestusedwithlearnerswhoexhibithighanxietyaboutlearning,poormotivationtolearn,orahistoryofacademicfailures.Anditiseffectivemethodsfrequentlyusedbyteachersinclassroomsetting.HumanismMotivationandneedsarecloselyrelated.Ontheonehand,weregardmotivationasthefulfillmentofakindofneeds,andontheotherhand,humanneedsserveasdrivesorincentiveswhichimpulseonetotakeanaction.Whenwestudymotivationfromtheperspectiveofhumanism,itisnecessarytomentionhierarchyofneedsproposedbyMaslow.Heformulatedafive-foldhierarchyofhumanneedswhichbeganwithbiologicalneedsandmadeprogressupwardtotheself-actualization.AccordingtoMaslow,"motivationisconstant,neverending,fluctuatingandcomplexandthatitisanalmostuniversalcharacteristicofparticularlyeveryorganicstateofaffairs."Hisneedtheorycanclearlyandsatisfactorilyexplainthelanguagelearners'motivationinalllearningenvironments.Theneedhierarchyisasfollows(S.S.Chauhan,1985):itprovidesausefulwayofthinkingaboutthefactorsthatactivatehumanaction.IntermsofMaslow'sneedshierarchy，needsforforeignorsecondlanguagelearningwouldmainlycenteronthepsychologicalaspectsofthesecondlevelinthehierarchyand,whenthoseneedsaresatisfied,wouldrelatetothethird,fourth,andfifthlevelsinthepyramid.Additionally,astheneedsatonelevelaremet,theirimportanceinmotivatingindividualdecreases,andthenexthigherlevelofneedsbecomesthestrongestsourceofgoal-directedbehaviors.InviewofMaslow'sneedhierarchy，failuretosatisfystudents'needsforsafetyandsecurityintheforeignorsecondlanguagelearningsettingprobablyhindertheirrisk-taking,accordingly,thesepsychologicalinsecuritywillmakeL2learnersveryanxious(MacItyre&Gardner,1991)andtheywillregressintheirneeds,motivation,andperformanceintheclassroom.CognitionAsitsnameimplies,cognitiveapproach,emphasizingmentalprocessesplacesitselfinprocesses.Sincethe1960s,themechanisticapproachtohumanmotivationhasgivenwaytoamorecognitiveapproach.Thecommonelementsharedbyparticularcognitivetheoristsisthebeliefthatitisnecessarytoexamineaclassofinterveningvariableswhenexplainingbehavior.ThetheoreticalfoundationofacognitiveapproachcanbetracedtothewritingsofKant(31)andtophenomenologicalthinking.UandeGeerandJaspersnotethatcognitivetheoryrangesfromneobehavioristicmediationtophenomenologicalinterpretation.Acognitivetheoryofbehaviorassumesthatthefirststageinthechainofeventsinitiatedbythestimulussituationandresultedinthebehavioralactistheconstructionofcognitiverepresentationofthedistalenvironment.Thelatereventsinthechainarearoused,modifiedandguidedbythiscognitiverepresentation.Thecognitiverepresentationthusactsastheeffectiveenvironmentwhicharousesmotivesandemotions,andguidesovertbehaviortowarditstargetorgoal.Thefamoustheoryannotatingmotivationisattributiontheory.People,afterfinishingonetask,arelikelytolookforthereasonwhyhecansucceedorsufferfailure,whichisthefirstobjectivebase,onwhichpsychologistattribution.F.Heider,theoneproposingattributiontheory,believedexplorepeoplepossessedtwoneedsofunderstandingworldandcontrollingenvironment.Abilityandeffortareinternalcharacteristics;taskdifficultyandluckbelongtoexternalfactors;taskdifficultyandabilityarestablefactors,whereaseffortandluckchangewithvariablesituations.Accordingtoattributiontheory,highersatisfactionoccurswhensuccessisself-attributedthanthoseattributedtoexternalfactors.Whenpeoplebelievethemselves---ratherthanluck,fate,theteachers,oraneasytesthavecreatedthesuccessfulperformance,theyarehappierwiththemselvesandtheirskills.Attributiontheorycanexplain,tosomeextent,thephenomenonthatfailureorsuccesscanhavedifferenteffectsondifferentindividuals.Italsogivesimplicationsforteachersinteachingbyhelpingstudentssettingupcorrectattribution.Manytheoristsadvocatethattheconstructofmotivationisnotasasingleentitybutasamultifactoraloneandtheyapplydifferentwaystoprobeintomotivation.Besidesthemotivationtheoriesdiscussedabove,Heider'snaivepsychology,Jones&Davis'correspondencetheoryandKelley'scovariationtheoryallshedlightonthemotivation,explaininghumanbeingslearningmotivationfromdifferentperspectives.AnalysisoffactorsaffectingmotivationForthelastfewdecades,researchonmotivationinthefieldofsecondlanguagehasbeenstronglyinfluencedbyGardner'sSocio-EducationalModel.However,otherresearchers,suchasCrookesandSchmidt(1991),regardmotivationasamuchmorecomplexconstructthantheoneculturallyrelateddichotomy,especiallyindifferentcontextsofforeignlanguagelearning.CrookesandSchmidt(1991)thenproposedanexpandeddefinitionoflanguagelearningmotivationbyapplyingKeller'seducation-orientedtheoryofmotivationastheirbase.Keller(1983)identifiedfourmajordeterminantsofmotivation:①interestinthelanguagebasedonexistingattitudes,experience,andbackgroundknowledgeonthelearners'part;②relevance,whichinvolvesperceptionthatpersonalneeds,suchasachievement,affiliationandpowerbeingmetbylearningthelanguage;③expectancyofsuccessorfailure;and©outcomes,i.e.,theextrinsicorintrinsicrewardsfeltbythelearner.InterestInterest,oneofimportantinnerincentives,playsaveryimportantroleinthelanguagelearningprocess.Interestinlearningcanbedefinedasadesiretoacquirenewinformationandtofindoutnewobjects,eventsandideas.Thismayinvolveapproachingandacquiringinformationaboutsomethingnew,seekingnewinformationconcerningsomethingthatthestudentshavealreadyknownabout(Katherine,1981).DirectInterestvs.IndirectInterestInterestcanbedividedintotwocategories---directinterestandindirectone.Directinterest,resultingfromdirectlearningmaterialsandthelearningprocess,canattractlearners'attentionandarousetheirinterestquickly,butitcannotlastforalongtime.Forexample,newinformationcanprovokelearners'interestdirectly,butwhenlearnersmeetdifficultiesinthelearningprocessorhavenotmadeanyprogressforalongtime,theywilllosetheinterestinitevenabandonitIndirectinterest,resultingfromstudentsthemselvesandlastingmuchlonger,canspurlearnerstodevotemorestrengthandenergytostudy.Withindirectinterest,highlymotivatedstudentscansettheirownlearninggoalsandtasks,adoptvariouslearningstrategiesandmakefulluseofanychancestoenhancetheirabilityorenlargetheirknowledgehorizon.Hence,cultivatingstudents'indirectinterestcandofavorforlanguagelearning.SignificanceofInterestDeciandRyanheldthatinterestwas"animportantdirectroleinintrinsicallymotivatedbehaviorinwhichpeoplenaturallyapproachactivitiesthatattractthem".Inotherwords,interestisbelievedtobeanecessaryandefficientmeanstoprovokelearners'intrinsicmotivation,soitisamanifestationofinborncapabilitiesintermsofcompetency,self-assessmentaswellaspersonalaccomplishments.ItisacknowledgedthatwhetherthestudentsareinterestedinEnglishlanguagelearningdirectlyinfluencesthesuccessorfailureofEnglishteachingandstudents'performance.Onlystudents'interestinlanguagelearningisinspired,willtheytaketheinitiativeorbecomeactiveinlearningEnglishwell.RelevanceThesecondelementisrelevance,whichreferstotheextenttowhichthestudentsfeelthattheinstructionisconnectedwithimportantpersonalneeds,values,orgoals.Itisaprerequisitefor"sustainedmotivation"andrequirestheperceptionofthelearnersthattheirpersonalneedsaresatisfiedbythelearningsituation.Relevance,atamacro-level,associateswiththemotivationtheoriesofneedshierarchy,achievementmotivation,competencemotivation,andreinforcementvalue;attheleveloflearningsituation,itreferstotheextenttowhichtheclassroominstructionandcoursecontentareseentobeconductivetoachievingthegoal,thatis，tomastertheL2Thereareseveralkindsoflearners'needs:instrumentalneeds,whicharemetwhenthelearnershavethebeliefthatthecontentofalessoniswhattheywant;needsforachievement,forautonomy,foraffiliation,forendurance,foraggression,forpower,andsoon.Keller(1983a,1983b)proposedthatmotivationcouldbeenhancedwhenstudentsperceivedthatthelearningactivitiescouldsatisfytheirbasicneeds,suchasneedsforachievement,power,oraffiliation.Inotherwords,teachingmaterials,teachingmethods,levelofdifficultyshouldbecorrespondenttoorrelatedwithstudents'needsandlearninggoals.ExpectanceThethirddeterminantisexpectancywhichreferstostudents'perceivedlikelihoodofachievingsuccessthroughpersonalcontrolandisrelatedtothelearner'sself-confidenceandself-efficacyatagenerallevel;itconcernsperceivedtaskdifficulty,theamountofeffortrequired,theamountofavailableassistanceandguidance,theteacher'spresentationofthetask,andfamiliaritywiththetasktypeatthelevelofthelearningsituation.AccordingtoKeller(1983a),thiscategoryencompassesthemotivationtheoriesoflocusofcontrol,attributiontheory,learnedhelplessness,personalcausation,andself-efficacy.SatisfactionorOutcomesThefourthdeterminantofmotivationissatisfactionoroutcomesthatarerelatedwiththeextrinsicorintrinsicrewardfeltbythelearner.Activitiesforwhichthemotivatingforcesareoutcomeshavebeenreferredtoasextrinsicallymotivated,asopposedtothosewhichareintrinsicallymotivated.Satisfactionoroutcomesincludethesatisfactionofgoalfulfillmentsanditseffectsonmotivationforinvolvinginsimilaractivitiesinthefuture.Thelearnerswillbecomeunmotivatedorlessmotivatedoncetheoutcomesoftheirgreateffortsareinconsistentwiththeiroriginalexpectations,thegradingsystemissubjectiveandarbitrary,ortheintrinsicallymotivatedpersonisconfinedintoanexternallycontrolledcontingencysystem.Differentfactorsandvariousteachingmethodshavecloserelationshipwithoutcomes.Kellerdeemedthatunexpected,noncontingentrewardsratherthananticipated,salient,task-contingentrewards;verbalpraiseandinformativefeedbackratherthanthreats,surveillance,orexternalperformanceevaluationcouldgivelearnerbettersatisfactionoroutcomes.Inordertomaintainagoodlearningsettingtomeetlearner'ssatisfaction,consistentstandardsandconsequencesfortaskaccomplishmentshouldbeheld.Allowingstudentstouseanewlylearntskillinarealisticsettingcanarousetheirsensesofsatisfactiontoalargedegree.5.ConclusionThispaperhasexploredandanalyzedlanguagelearningmotivationfromdifferentperspectives:behaviorism,humanismandcognition,makingreferencetovariousclassificationsanddefinitionsofmotivation.Onthebasisoftheabovediscussion,weknowthatmotivationisoneoftheimportantaffectivefactorswidelystudiedonthesecondlanguageacquisition.Theinfluenceofmotivationtotheforeignlanguagelearnersisprofound.Thispaperpresentsastudyofmotivationandsecondlanguageacquisition.Afterstudyingthispaper,wecanconcludethat:First,thedefinitionofmotivationisvariousfromdifferentperspectives.Andthereissomelimitationforthesedefinitions,su