2015年7月23日雅思阅读考情回顾

一、考试时间：2015723日（周四）inAfrica。介绍了非洲传统的农业系统。相同话题文章可参考剑七第四套题第二篇EndlessHarvestBiologicalControlofPests2010529日旧题FindingOurWay，描述了对于人类行为的研究，可参考剑五第一套题第二篇NatureorNurture。第三篇HierarchyandHistoryLanguage，描述了人类迁徙和语言之间的联系。可参考剑五第一套题第一篇Johnson’sDictionary以及剑九第三套题第一篇AttitudestoPassage1:TraditionalFarmingSysteminAfrica。介绍了非洲传统的农业系统。Passage2:Findingourway。描述了对于人类行为的研究。Passage3:HierarchyandHistoryLanguageTraditionalFarmingTraditionalFarmingSysteminAfrica题型分布与4441个1-InLuapulalandallocationisinaccordancewithThecitemenesystemprovidesthelandwithasheswherecropsareDuringthesecondseason,thelastntedcropis(vegetable)Undersuitableconditions,fruittreesarentednear5-Classifythefollowingitemswiththecorrectdescription.Writeyouranswersinboxes5-8onyouranswersheet. beusedinsomeunusualoccasions,suchas cannotthriveforbeingaffectedbythe bethelargestpartofcreating besoldthelocal 9-Peoplerarelyuseanimalstocultivateland.Whenitisabusytime,childrenusuallytookpartinthe NOTThelocalresidentseatgoatsonaregular Thoughcitemenehasbeenasophisticatedsystem,itcouldnotprovideenoughprotein. Whatisthewriter’sopinionaboutthetraditionalwaysof TheycansupplythenutritionthatpeopleTheyarenotcapableofprovidingadequatesupporttotheTheyareproductivesystemsthatneednomoreTheywillbeeasilymodifiedintheTraditionalFarmingSysteminotherpartsofAfricaisallocatedbytheheadmanorheadwomanofavillagetopeopleofeither,accordingtoneed.Sincelandisgenerallypreparedbyhand,oneLulupwacannottakeonaverylargearea;inthissenselandhasnotbeenalimitingresourceoverlargepartsoftheprovince.Thesituationhasalreadychangednearthemaintownships,andtherehaslongbeenascarcityoflandforcultivationintheValley.Intheseareasregisteredownershippatternsare ingprevalent.MostofthetraditionalcropinLuapula,asintheBembaareatoeast,isbasedoncitemene,asystemwherebycropsaregrownontheashesoftreebranches.Asarule,entiretreesarenotfelled,butarepollardedsothattheycanregenerate.Branchesarecutoveranareaofvaryingsizeearlyinthedryseason,andstackedtodryoveraroughcircleaboutafifthtoatenthofthepollardedarea.ThewoodisfiredbeforetherainsandinthefirstyearntedwiththeAfricancerealfingermillet(Eleusinecoracana).C.Duringthesecondseason,andpossiblyforafewseasonsmoretheareaisntedtovariouslymixedcombinationsofannualssuchasmaize,pumpkins(firiaoccidentalis)andothercucurbits,sweetpotatoes,groundnuts,Phaseolusbeansandvariousleafyvegetables,grownwithacertainamountofrotation.Thediversesequenceendswithvegetablecassava,whichisoftenntedintothedevelolast-but-onecropasaD.Richards(1969)observedthatthepracticeofcitemeneentailsadefinitedivisionoflabourbetweenmenandwomen.Amanstakesoutaplotinanunobtrusivemanner,sinceitisconsideredprovocativetowardsone'neighbourstomarkboundariesinanexplicitway.Thedangerousworkoffellingbranchesisthemen‘sprovince,andinvolvesmuchBranchesarestackedbythewomen,andfiredbythemen.Formerlywomenandmencooperatedinthentingwork,buttheharvestingwasalwaysdonebythewomen.Atthebeginningofthecyclelittleweedingisnecessary,sincethefiringofthebrancheseffectivelydestroysweeds.Asthecycleprogressesweedsincreaseandnutrientseventually depletedtoapointwherefurthereffortwithannualcropsisjudgedtobenotworthwhile:atthispointthecassavaisnted,sinceitcanproduceacroponnearlyexhaustedsoil.Thereaftertheplotisabandoned,andanewareapollardedforthenextcitemenecycle.E.When isnotavailable-thisisincreasinglythecasenowadays-variousridgingsystems(ibala)arebuiltonsmallareas,tobentedwithcombinationsofmaize,beans,groundnutsandsweetpotatoes,relayedwithcassava.Theseplotsareusuallytendedbywomen,providesubsistence.Wheretheirrootshaveyear-roundaccesstowatertablesmango,guavaandoil-palmtreesoftengrowaroundhouses,formingatraditionalagrorysystem.Inseasonsomeofthefruitissoldbytheroadsideorinlocalmarkets.Themarginsofdambosaresometimesntedtolocalvarietiesofriceduringtherainyseason,andareasadjacenttovegetablesirrigatedwithwaterfromthedamboduringthedryseason.Theextentofcultivationisverylimited,nodoubtbecausethegrowingofcropsunderdamboconditionscallsforagreatdealofskill.Neartownssomeofthevegetableproduceissoldinlocalmarkets.FishinghaslongprovidedamuchneededproteinsupplementtothedietofLuapulans,aswellasbeingtheonesubstantialsourceofcash.Muchfishisdriedforsaletoareasawayfromthemainwaterways.TheMweruandBangweuluLakeBasinsarethemainareasofyear-roundfishing,buttheLuapulaRiverisalsoexploitedduringthelatterpartofthedryseason.Severalpreviouslyabundantanddesirablespecies,suchastheLuapulasalmonormpumbu(Labeoaltivelis)andpale(Sarotherodonmachochir)haveallbutdisappearedfromLakeMweru,apparentlyduetoFishinghasalwaysbeenafarmoreremunerativeactivityinLuapulathatcrophusbandry.Afishermanmayearnmoreinaweekthanabeanormaizegrowerinawholeseason.Isometimesheardclaimsthattherelativelyhighearningstobeobtainedfromfishinginducedan'easycome,easygo'outlookamongLuapulanmen.Ontheotherhand,someonewhosecuresgoodbuterraticearningsmayfeelthattheirinvestmentinaneconomicallyproductiveactivityisnotworthwhilebecauseLuapulansfailtocooperatewellinsuchactivities.Besides,afishermanwithsparecashwillfindlittleinthewayofworkingequipmenttospendhismoneyon.Betterspendone'smoneyinthebarsandhaveagoodtime!Onlysmallnumbersofcattleoroxenarekeptintheprovinceowingtheprevalenceofthetsetsefly.Forthefewherds,thedambosprovidesubsistencegrazingduringthedryseason.Theabsenceofanimaldraftpowergreatlylimitspeoples'abilitytoploughandcultivateland:amarriedcouplecanrarelymanagetopreparebyhand-hoeing.Mostpeoplekeeplyroamingchickensandgoats.Theseactasareserveforbartering,butmayalsobeoccasionallyslaughteredforceremoniesorforentertainingimportantvisitors.Theseanimalsarenotaregularpartofmostpeoples'diet.J.Citemenehasbeenaningenioussystemforprovidingpeoplewithseasonalproductionofhighqualitycerealsandvegetablesinregionsofacid,heavilyleachedsoils.Nutritionally,themostseriousdeficiencywasthatofprotein.Thiscouldattimesbealleviatedwhenfishwasavailable,providedthatcultivatorslivedneartheValleyandcouldfindthemeansofbarteringfordriedfish.Thecitemene/fishingsystemwaswelladaptedtotheecologyofthemiomboregionsandsustainableforlongperiods,butonlyaslongashumanpopulationdensitiesstayedatlowlevels.AlthoughpopulationdensitiesarestillmuchlowerthaninseveralcountriesofSouth-EastAsia,neitherthefisheriesnorthe sandwoodlandsofLuapulaarecapable,withunmodifiedtraditionalpractices,ofsupportingthepeopleinasustainablemanner.Overall,peoplemustlearntointensifyanddiversifytheirproductivesystemswhileyetensuringthatthesesystemswillremainproductiveinthefuture,whenevenmorepeoplewillneedfood.Increasingoverallproductionoffood,thoughavastchallengeinitself,willnotbeenough,however.AtthesametimestorageanddistributionsystemsmusteveryoneaccesstoatleastamoderateshareoftheFindingourFindingourWay.题型分布与535个14-Usetheinformationinthepassagetomatchthecategoryofeachnavigationmethod(listedA-C)withcorrectstatement.WritetheappropriatelettersA-Cinboxes14-18onyouranswersheet.NByoumayuseanylettermorethanABPathCRouteUsingbasicdirectionfromstartingpointandlightintensitytomoveBUsingcombinationofceanddirectionheadingfordestination.Usinganiconicbuildingnearyourdestinationasorientation.Usingaretracemethodfromaknownceifamistakehappens.Usingapassedspotasreferenceforanewintegration.19-WhatdoestheantofCataglyphisrespondifithasbeentakentoanotherlocationaccordingtothepassage?CAChangestheorientationsensorsBReleasesbiologicalscentforhelpfromCContinuestomovebytheoriginalDtotallygetslostonceWhichofthefollowingsistrueabout'cognitivemap’inthispassage?AThereisnotobviousdifferencecontrastbyrealBItexistsinourheadandisalwaysCItonlyexistsundersomeDItwasmanagedbybrainWhichoffollowingdescriptionofwayfindingscorrectlyreflectsthefunctionofcognitivemap?AAltvisualizesavirtualrouteinalargeBItreproducesanexactdetailsofeveryCObservationysamoreimportantDStoreorsupermarketisamustinthe22-Biologicalnavigationhasastateofflexibility.Youwillalwaysreceivegoodreactionwhenyouaskdirection.NOTWhensomeonefollowsaroute,heorshecollectscomprehensiveperceptionalinformationinmindontheway.TRUEPathintegrationrequiresmorethoughtfrombraincomparedwithroute-following.FALSEInafamiliarsurroundings,anexactmapofwhereyouareautomaticallyemergeinyourhead.FindingOur"Drive200yards,andthenturnright"saysthecar'scomputervoice.Yourelaxinthedriver'sseat,followthedirectionsandreachyourdestinationwithouterror.IfscertainlynicetohavetheGlobalPositioningSystem(GPS)todirectyoutowithinafewyardsofyourgoal.Yetifthesaliteservice'sdigitalmaps eevenslightlyoutdated.Youcan elost.Thenyouhavetorelyontheancienthumanskillofnavigatinginthree-dimensionalspace.Luckily,yourbiologicalfinderhasanimportantadvantageoverGPS:itdoesnotgoawryifonlyonepartoftheguidancesystemgoeswrong,becauseitworksinvariousways.Youcanaskquestionsofpeopleonthesidewalk.Orfollowastreetthatfamiliar.Orrelyonanavigationalrubric:“IfIkeeptheEastRiveronleft,Iwilleventuallycross34thStreet."Thehumanpositioningsystemisflexibleandcapableoflearning.AnyonewhoknowsthewayfrompointtopointBandfromAtoCcanprobablyfigureouthowtogetfromtoC,Buthowdoesthiscomplexcognitivesystemreallywork?Researcherslookingatseveralstrategiespeopleusetoorientthemselvesinspace:guidance,pathintegrationandroutefollowing.Wemayuseallthreeorcombinationsthereof.Andasexpertslearnmoreaboutthesenavigationalskills,theyaremakingthecasethatourabilitiesmayunderlieourofmemoryandlogicalthinking.GrandCentral,PleaseImaginethatyouhavearrivedinaceyouhavenevervisited—NewYorkCity.YougetoffthetrainatGrandCentralTerminalinmidtownManhattan.Youhaveahourstoexplorebeforeyoumustreturnforyourridehome.Youheaduptowntoseepopularspotsyouhavebeentoldabout:RockefellerCenter,CentralPark,andtheMetropolitanMuseumofArt.Youmeanderinandoutofshopsalongtheway.Suddenly,itistimetogetbacktothestation.Buthow?CIfyouaskpassersbyforhelpmostlikelyyouwillreceiveinformationinmanydifferentforms.A whoorientsherselfbyaprominentlandmarkwouldgesturesouthward:『LookdownthereSeethetall,broadMetLifeBuilding?Headforthat—thestationisrightbelowit"Neurologistscallthisnavigationalapproach'guidance/meaningthatalandmarkvisiblefromadistanceservesasthemarkerforone'sdestination.D.Anothercitydwellermightsay:“Whatcesdoyourememberpassing?”…Okay.GotowardtheendofCentralPark,thenwalkdownSt.Patrick'sCathedral.Afewmoreblocks,andGrandCentralwillbeofftoyourleft."Inthiscase,youarepointedtowardthemostrecentceyourecall,andyouaimforit.Oncethereyouheadforthenextnotableceandsoon,retracingyourpath.YourbrainisaddingtogethertheindividuallegsofyourtrekintoacumulativeprogressreportResearcherscalltogetaround,includinginsects,spiders,crabsandrodents.ThedesertantsofthegenusCataglyphisemploythismethodtoreturnfromforagingasfaras100yardsaway.Theynotethegeneraldirectiontheycamefromandretracetheirsteps,usingthepolarizationofsunlighttoorientthemselvesevenunderovercastskies.Ontheirwaybacktheyarefaithfultothishomingvector.Evenwhenascientistpicksupanantandputsitinadifferentspot,theinsectstubbornlyproceedsintheoriginallydetermineddirectionuntilithasgone”back“allofthedistanceitwanderedfromnest.Onlythendoestheantrealizeithasnotsucceeded,anditbeginstowalkinsuccessivelylargerloopstofinditswayhome.E.Whetheritistryingtogetbacktotheanthillorthetrainstation,anyanimalusingpathintegrationmustkeeptrackofitsownmovementssoitknows,whilereturning,whichsegmentsithasalreadycompleted.Asmove,yourbraingathersdatafromyourenvironment—sights,smells,lightingmusclecontractions,asenseoftimepassing—todeterminewhichwayyourbodyhasgone.Thechurchspire,thesizzlingsausagesonthatvendor'sgrilltheopencourtyardandthetrainstationallrepresentsnapshotsofmemorablejuncturesduringyourjourney.F.Inadditiontoguidanceandpathintegration,weuseathirdmethodforfindingourway.Anofficeworkeryouapproachforhelponastreetcomermightsay:“WalkstraightdownFifth,turnlefton47th,rightonPark,gothroughthewalkwayundertheHeleyBuilding,thencrossthestreettotheMetLifeBuildingintoGrandCentral."Thiscalledroutefollowing,useslandmarkssuchasbuildingsandstreetnames,plusdirections—straight,turn,gothrough—forreachingintermediatepoints.Routefollowingismoreprecisethanguidanceorpathbutifyouforgetthedetailsandtakeawrongturn,theonlywaytorecoveristobacktrackuntilyoureachafamiliarspot,becauseyoudonotknowthegeneraldirectionorhaveareferencelandmarkforyourgoal.Theroute-followingnavigationstrategytrulychallengesthebrain.Wehavetokeepallthelandmarksandintermediatedirectionsinourhead.Itisthemostdetailedandthereforemostreliablemethod,butitcanbeundonebyroutinememorylapses.Withpathintegration,ourcognitivememoryislessburdened;ithastodealwithonlyafewgeneralinstructionsandthehomingvector.Pathintegrationworksbecauseitreliesmostfundamentallyonourknowledgeofourbody'sgeneraldirectionofmovementandwealwayshaveaccesstotheseinputs.Nevertheless,peopleoftenchoosetogivefollowingdirections,inpartbecausesaying,Gostraightthatway!“doesnotworkinourcomplex,man-madeG.RoadMaporMetaphor?OnyournextvisittoManhattanyouwillrelyonyourmemorytogetaround.Mostlikelyyouwilluseguidance,pathintegrationandroutefollowinginvariouscombinations.Buthowexactlydotheseconstructsdeliverconcretedirections?Dowehumanshave,asimageoftherealworld,akindofroadmapinourheads—withsymbolscities,trainstationsandchurches;thicklinesforhighways;narrowlinesforlocalstreets?Neurobiologistsandcognitivepsychologistsdocalltheportionofourmemorythatcontrolsnavigationa'cognitivemap."Themapmetaphorisobviouslyseductive:mapsaretheeasiestwaytopresentgeographicinformationforconvenientvisualinspection.Inmanycultures,mapsweredevelopedbeforewriting,andtodaytheyareusedinalmosteverysociety.Itisevenpossiblethatmapsderivefromauniversalwayinwhichourspatial-memorynetworksarewired.H.Yetthenotionofalilmapinourheadsmaybemisleading;agrowingbodyofresearchimpliesthatthecognitivemapismostlyametaphor.Itmaybemorelikeahierarchicalstructureofrelationships.TogetbacktoGrandCentral,youfirstenvisionthelargescale—thatis,youvisualizethegeneraldirectionofthestation.Withinthatsystemyouimaginetheroutetothelastceyouremember.Afterthat,youobserveyournearbysurroundingstopickoutarecognizablestorefrontorstreetcomerthatwillsendyoutowardthatce.Inthishierarchical,ornested,scheme,positionsanddistancesarerelative,incontrastwitharoadwherethesameinformationisshowninageometricallypreciseHierarchyandHistoryLanguage。人类迁徙语言和语言之间的联系。HierarchyandHistoryLanguage。人类迁徙语言和语言之间的联系。Greenberg的研究，把语言分为三类，着重介绍了理论发展和其他专家的意题型分布与653个27-AllthelinguisticopposedtohisfindingstheGreen’sdatainsufficientandtheconclusionwasXXCampbell-LinguisticoncewhoagainstgoingthousandsofyearbacktostudyLinguistic,theonesaidthatlanguagearenotrelatedtobasicXXlinguisticdidnotattemptthislanguagesarerelatedtoeachotherbasedonThemothertongueandopposedhadanumberofsimilarwords,soundunitsand33-Linguisticshadusedastronomyforgroulanguage.NOTCurrentlythereisnotenoughinterestinlanguageresearch.LearningbyLearningTheoryisrootedintheworkofIvanPavlov,thefamousscientistwhodiscoveredand edtheprincipleserninghowanimals(humansincluded)learninthe1900s.Twobasickindsoflearningorconditioningoccur,oneofwhichisfamouslyknownastheclassicalconditioning.Classicalconditioninghappenswhenananimallearnstoassociateaneutralstimulus(signal)withastimulusthathasintrinsicmeaningbasedonhowcloselyintimethetwostimuliarepresented.Theclassicexampleofclassicalconditioningisadog’sabilitytoassociatethesoundofabell(somethingthatoriginallyhasnomeaningtothedog)withthepresentationoffood(somethingthathasalotofmeaningforthedog)afewmomentslater.Dogsareabletolearntheassociationbetweenbellandfood,andwillsalivateimmediayafterhearingthebelloncethisconnectionhasbeenmade.Yearsoflearningresearchhaveledtocreationofahighlypreciselearningtheorythatcanbeusedtoandpredicthowandunderwhatcircumstancesmostanyanimalwilllearn,includinghumanbeings,andeventuallyhelppeoplefigureouthowtochangetheirbehaviors.Rolemodelsareapopularnotionforguidingchilddevelopment,butinrecentyearsveryinterestingresearchhasbeendoneonlearningbyexampleinotheranimals.Ifthesubjectofanimallearningistaughtverymuchintermsofclassicaloroperantconditioning,itcestoomuchemphasisonhowweallowanimalstolearnandnotenoughonhowtheyareequippedtolearn.ToteachacourseofmineIhavebeendipprofitablyintoaveryinterestingandaccessiblecompilationofpapersonsociallearninginm ls,includingchimpsandhumanchildren,editedbyHeyesandGalef(1996).TheresearchreportedinonepaperstartedwithaschoolfieldtriptoIsraeltoapine wheremanypineconeswerediscovered,strippedtothecentralcore.Sotheinvestigationstartedwithnoweightytheoreticalintent,butwasdirectedatfindingoutwhatwaseatingthenutritiouspineseedsandhowtheymanagedtogetthemoutofthecones.Theculpritprovedtobetheversatileandathleticblackrat(Rattusrattus)andthetechniquewastobiteeachconescaleoffatitsbase,insequencefrombasetotipfollowingthespiralgrowthpatternofthecone.Urbanblackratswerefoundtolacktheskillandwereunabletolearnitevenifhousedwithexperiencedconestrippers.However,infantsofurbanmotherscrossfosteredtostrippermothersacquiredtheskill,whereasinfantso