孤立性肺结节的诊断现状

（优选）孤立性肺结节的诊断现状当前1页，总共96页。概况所有胸片0.09%-0.20％150，000/年（预计）病因：肉芽肿性疾病、肺癌、错构瘤

恶性结节：10－70％占手术切除肺结节的60-80%，IA期肺癌术后5年生存率61-75％

良性结节：感染性肉芽肿80％错构瘤10％Chest2003；123：89-96当前2页，总共96页。病因当前3页，总共96页。Figure1a.

Ribfractureina50-year-oldwomanwithmultiplemyeloma.(a)Close-upposteroanteriorradiographoftherightupperlungshowsapoorlymarginatednodularareaofincreasedopacityoverlyingtheanterioraspectoftherightsecondrib(arrow).(b)CTscanshowsahealedfractureoftherightsecondrib(arrow).Notethelyticlesionsinthevertebralbodysecondarytomultiplemyeloma.当前4页，总共96页。Figure2a.

Pseudonoduleina50-year-oldman.(a)Close-upposteroanteriorradiographoftherightlungshowsasmoothlymarginatednodularareaofincreasedopacityprojectingoverthelung(arrow).Notetheadjacentelectrocardiographicleadattachmentpad(arrowhead).Onafollow-upradiographobtainedafterremovaloftheattachmentpad(notshown),nonodulewasobserved.(b)Frontandbackviewsoftheelectrocardiographicleadattachmentpadshowaneccentricallylocatedsilvernitratepad,whichexplainsthecontiguousnodularareaofincreasedopacityonthechestradiograph.当前5页，总共96页。Figure3a.

Boneislandina61-year-oldmanwithmelanoma.(a)Close-upposteroanteriorradiographoftheupperchestshowsafocalareaofincreasedopacityoverlyingtherightseventhribposteriorly(arrow).(b)Fluoroscopicimagesshowawell-marginatedintraosseouslesion(arrow).Thisfindingisconsistentwithaboneislandandobviatedfurtherinvestigation.当前6页，总共96页。Figure4a.

Osteophyteoftheleftfirstribina60-year-oldwoman.(a)Posteroanteriorchestradiographshowsapoorlydefinednodularareaofincreasedopacityoverlyingtheanterioraspectoftheleftfirstrib(arrow).(b)Posteroanteriorchestradiographobtained2yearsearliershowsthatintervalgrowthhasoccurred(cfa).Thisintervalgrowthraisedsuspicionformalignancy.(c)ContiguouschestCTscans(imageonrightobtainedatalowerlevel)revealthattheareaofincreasedopacityisalargeosteophyteofthefirstrib.Hadfluoroscopybeenperformed,costlyCTcouldhavebeenavoided.当前7页，总共96页。Figure5a.

Cutaneousnodulesina51-year-oldmanwithneurofibromatosisandprostaticadenocarcinoma.(a)Posteroanteriorradiographshowsnumerouswell-marginatednodularareasofincreasedopacityprojectingovertheloweraspectofthethoraxandapoorlymarginatednoduleoverlyingtheupperaspectofthelefthemithorax(arrow).Becausethelocationoftheuppernodulewasuncertain,CTwasperformed.(b)CTscanhelpsconfirmtheintraparenchymallocationofthenoduleintheleftupperlobe.(c)CTscandemonstratesmultiplecutaneousnodules.当前8页，总共96页。Figure6a.

Segmentalbronchialatresiaina17-year-oldgirl.(a)Close-upposteroanteriorradiographoftherightlowerlungshowsanodularareaofincreasedopacityinthelowerlobe(arrow).(b)ChestCTscans(imageonleftobtainedatalowerlevel)showabranchingtubularareaofincreasedattenuationintherightlowerlobeaswellaspulmonaryparenchymawithlowerthanexpectedattenuation.Thesefindingsarecharacteristicofsegmentalbronchialatresiaandobviatedfurtherwork-up.当前9页，总共96页。Figure7a.

Multiplearteriovenousmalformationsina23-year-oldwomanwithhereditaryhemorrhagictelangiectasia.ContiguouschestCTscansrevealmultiplesmallnodularareasofincreasedattenuationbilaterallywithenlargedfeedinganddrainingvessels,findingsthatarediagnosticforarteriovenousmalformations.Achestradiographobtainedearlier(notshown)demonstratedapossiblesmallsolitarypulmonarynoduleintherightlowerlobe.当前10页，总共96页。当前11页，总共96页。Figure2a:

(a)Chestradiographshowsanincidentalsmallnodule(arrow)attheleftcostophrenicangle.(b)Thin-sectionCTscanshowscentralfatattenuation(–43HU)inthenodule.Hamartomawasdiagnosed.当前12页，总共96页。Figure4:CTscanina90-year-oldwomanwithchroniccongestiveheartfailureshowsatinynoduleadjacenttotherightmajorfissurethatislikelytorepresentacongestedintrapulmonarylymphnode(arrow).Follow-upCTwasnotperformedbecauseofthepatient'sadvancedage.当前13页，总共96页。胸部CT检测情况病灶敏感性大小≤５mm74％＞5mm82％性质毛玻璃样65％实性83％部位外周80%中央61%Radiology2003;228:70-75当前14页，总共96页。当前15页，总共96页。SPN恶性危险因素当前16页，总共96页。当前17页，总共96页。当前18页，总共96页。SPN

大小常规胸片仅能辨别直径9mm以上结节80％良性结节直径小于2cm42％恶性结节直径小于2cm，15％恶性结节直径小于1cm,直径8mm左右结节经随访恶性发生率10-20%,直径<4mm结节恶性发生率<1%非钙化直径小于1cm结节，42-92%为良性Radiology2006;239:34-49.Radiographics.2000;20:43-58.Radiology2005;237:395-400.当前19页，总共96页。SPN部位良性结节分布无规律性肺癌：右肺/左肺1.5，上叶占70％IPF患者合并肺癌好发于下叶外周或发生纤维化部位50％腺癌位于外周，鳞癌多为中央型Radiology2006;239:34-49.当前20页，总共96页。TransverseCTscanina75-year-oldmanwithidiopathicpulmonaryfibrosisshowsasolidleftlowerlobenodule(arrow).FNABofthenodulerevealedsquamouscellcarcinoma.当前21页，总共96页。SPN边缘光滑：21％恶性结节边界清，多见于转移瘤分叶：25％良性结节有分叶，恶性组织生长非均质性不规整：倾向于恶性，可见于肉芽肿性疾病、类脂性肺炎等毛刺：当前22页，总共96页。Figure8a.

LungnodulecausedbyDirofilaria(canineheartworm)inanasymptomatic70-year-oldman.(a)Close-upCTscanoftherightlungshowsaperipheral,smoothlymarginated,noncalcifiedlungnodule.(b)Photographofaspecimenobtainedwithwedgeresectionshowsawell-circumscribed,2-cmnodulewithyellowareasofgeographicnecrosis.(c)High-powerphotomicrograph(originalmagnification,x175;hematoxylin-eosinstain)showsintravascularDirofilaria.Mostinfectionsmanifestaslungnodulesfromembolicinfarctioncausedbyintravascularworms.光滑当前23页，总共96页。Figure9.

Solitarymetastasisfrombladdercancerina45-year-oldwoman.ChestCTscanshowsasmoothlymarginated,1-cmperipheralnodule.Metastaticdiseasewasconfirmedatresection.Solitarymetastasesaccountfor3%-5%ofallresectedsolitarypulmonarynodules.当前24页，总共96页。分叶Figure10.

Non-smallcelllungcancerina63-year-oldwoman.Close-upchestCTscanoftherightlungshowsalobulatedandspiculatednoduleinthelowerlobe.当前25页，总共96页。Figure11a.

Arteriovenousmalformationina34-year-oldmanwithhereditaryhemorrhagictelangiectasia.(a)Close-upposteroanteriorradiographoftherightlungshowsalobulated,well-marginatednoduleinthelowerlobe(arrows).(b)ChestCTscandemonstratesafeedingartery(arrow)andanenlargeddrainingvein(arrowhead).(c)CTscanshowsthenidusofthemalformation.(d)Pulmonaryangiogramhelpsconfirmarteriovenousmalformation.Notetheearlydrainingvein(arrows).当前26页，总共96页。Figure12.

Intralobarsequestrationina14-year-oldboy.ChestCTscanshowsalobulated,well-marginatednodulewithhomogeneousattenuationintherightlowerlobe.Intrapulmonarysequestrationwasconfirmedatresection.当前27页，总共96页。边缘不规整或细毛刺Figure13.

Bronchioloalveolarcellcarcinomaina65-year-oldman.ChestCTscanshowsanirregularnoduleabuttingthemajorfissure.Notetheindentationoftheadjacentportionofthemajorfissureowingtodesmoplasticreactionaroundthetumor.Figure14.

Non-smallcelllungcancerina61-year-oldwoman.Close-upchestCTscanoftherightlungshowsaspiculatednodulewitheccentriccavitationintheupperlobe.当前28页，总共96页。SPN内部特征钙化脂肪密度结节衰减空洞空泡征支气管充气征当前29页，总共96页。钙化55％良性结节有钙化结节直径小于3cm，有下列钙化形式之一考虑良性：中心性，分层，弥漫性，爆米花样，超过结节面积10％13％肺癌有不同程度的钙化－偏心样钙化类癌、转移性骨肉瘤、软骨肉瘤、结肠癌、卵巢癌也可表现为良性钙化当前30页，总共96页。Figure21.

Granulomainanasymptomatic64-year-oldman.Close-upchestCTscanoftheleftlungshowsasoft-tissuenodulewithcentralcalcificationintheupperlobe.Notetheeccentriccavitationwithinthenodule.Figure23.

Pulmonarychondrohamartomaina40-year-oldman.Close-upchestCTscanoftherightlungshowsalobulatednodulewithcentralpopcornlikecalcificationintheupperlobe.当前31页，总共96页。Figure22a.

Histoplasmomainanasymptomatic50-year-oldman.(a)Close-uptomogramoftheleftlungdemonstratesasmooth,well-marginatednodule.(b)Photographofaresectedspecimenhelpsconfirmcentralcalcificationandlaminatedfibroustissue.当前32页，总共96页。Figure28a.

Granulomatousdiseaseina48-year-oldwoman.(a)ChestCTscan(10-mmcollimation)showsanodulewithperipheralcalcificationandacalcifiedrighthilarnode.(b)Thin-sectionCTscan(3-mmcollimation)betterdemonstratesthediffusesolidcalcificationinthenodule,afindingthatistypicalofabenigncause当前33页，总共96页。Figure8:TransverseCTscanshowsa1-cm-diameterleftlowerlobenodulewithcentralniduscalcification.Thisfindingisindicativeofbenigndisease.当前34页，总共96页。Figure9a:

(a)Chestradiographshowsarightupperlobenodulewithcentralcalcification.Themarginsareirregular.(b)CTscanshowsarightupperlobenodulewithirregularmarginsthatrepresentspulmonarycarcinoma(blackarrow).Thecalcificationseenontheradiographiscausedbyacalcifiedgranulomaanteriortothetumor(whitearrow).当前35页，总共96页。Figure10:CTscaninan80-year-oldmanshowsa2.2-cm-diameternoduleintheleftupperlobewitheccentriccalcification.FNABofthenodulerevealedadenocarcinoma.Figure11:CTscanshowseccentricdensecalcificationinarightlowerlobecarcinoidtumor当前36页，总共96页。Figure12:CTscanshowscalcifiedrightlowerlobenodulethatresemblesabenigngranuloma(arrow).Thepatienthadahistoryofosteosarcoma.Openlungbiopsyrevealedmetastaticdisease.当前37页，总共96页。Figure24.

Typicalpulmonarycarcinoidtumorina68-year-oldwoman.ChestCTscanshowsalobulatedlesionwithscatteredpunctatecalcificationsintheleftlowerlobe.当前38页，总共96页。Figure25a.

Non-smallcelllungcancerina45-year-oldwoman.(a)Close-upchestradiographoftherightlungshowsalobulated,sharplymarginatednoduleintheupperlobe.Notethepresenceofemphysemaandupperlobebullae.(b)Close-upchestCTscanoftherightlungrevealsamorphouscalcificationinthenodule,apatternthatistypicalofmalignancy.Adenocarcinomawasconfirmedatresection.当前39页，总共96页。Figure26.

Lungcancerina72-year-oldman.Close-upchestCTscanoftherightlungshowsalobularlesionwithperipheralpunctatecalcificationintheupperlobe,afindingthatisconsistentwith"engulfed"granuloma.Unlikethatincalcifiedgranulomas,calcificationinengulfedgranulomaistypicallyperipheralandconstitutesonlyasmallpartofthenodule.当前40页，总共96页。Figure27a.

Metastaticosteosarcomaina21-year-oldman.(a)Close-upchestCTscanoftheleftlungshowsasmall,high-attenuationnoduleinthelowerlobe(arrow).Thisfindingwassuggestiveofabenigncause.(b)ChestCTscanobtained8monthslaterrevealsintervalgrowthofthenodule,whichhashighattenuationandalobulatedcontour.Resectionrevealedmetastaticosteosarcoma.当前41页，总共96页。脂肪密度良性：错构瘤、脂肪瘤恶性：脂肉瘤、肾透明细胞癌当前42页，总共96页。Figure19a.

Hamartomainanasymptomaticman.(a)ChestCTscanshowsaheterogeneous,sharplymarginatedlesionwithsmallfocalareasofcalcificationandfat.Thesefindingsaretypicalfeaturesofhamartoma.(b)Photographofaresectedspecimendemonstratesayellowish,glistening,lobularcutsurface,afindingthatisconsistentwithfat.(c)Photomicrograph(originalmagnification,x100;hematoxylin-eosinstain)helpsconfirmthepresenceofadiposetissue(arrow)andshowsepithelialtissuecontaininganislandofbasophiliccartilage(arrowhead).Thismixtureofepithelialandmesenchymaltissueisdiagnosticforhamartoma.当前43页，总共96页。Figure20a.

Pulmonaryhamartomaina74-year-oldwoman.(a)ChestCTscanobtainedwith10-mmcollimationdemonstratesanodule(arrow),butitsinternalmorphologicfeaturesarepoorlyvisualized.(b)Thin-sectionCTscanobtainedwith1-mmcollimationbetterdemonstratesapunctateareaoffatwithinthenodule(arrow),afindingthatisdiagnosticforhamartoma.当前44页，总共96页。结节衰减非实性（毛玻璃样）：34％为恶性，直径大于1.5cm圆形恶性风险度增加（多见于BAC、腺癌有BAC特征）良性：炎症性病变，癌前病变（不典型腺瘤样增生，支气管肺泡过度增生）部分实性：40-50%直径小于1.5cm结节为恶性，实性成分位于中央区提示侵袭性腺癌实性：15％直径小于1cm病灶为恶性，转移性病灶多为实性当前45页，总共96页。Figure14:CTscaninan81-year-oldmanshowsa2.8-cmirregular,partlysolidleftupperlobenodulewithpleuraltags.FNABrevealedbronchioloalveolarcellcarcinoma.Figure13:CTscanina64-year-oldmanshowsanoval2.1-cmleftlowerlobenonsolidnodule(arrow).FNABrevealedadenocarcinoma.当前46页，总共96页。空洞(>5mm)良性空洞：壁光滑、薄(<4mm)恶性空洞：偏心、壁不规整、厚(>16mm)15%肺癌有空洞（病灶直径>3cm）当前47页，总共96页。Figure16.

Aspergillusinfectionina48-year-oldmanwithleukemia.Close-upchestCTscanoftherightlungshowsathin-walledcavitarynodule.Figure17.

Squamouscelllungcancerina60-year-oldwoman.Close-upposteroanteriorradiographoftherightlungshowsasmoothlymarginatednoduleinthelowerlobe.Notetheeccentriccavitationandthickwalls.当前48页，总共96页。Figure18:CTscaninan83-year-oldmanshowsa2.3-cmleftupperlobecavitarynodule.Thewallisvariableandthecavitywallisasthickas8mm.FNABrevealedsquamouscellcarcinoma.Figure19:CTscaninan80-year-oldmanshowsarightupperlobe2.9-cmcavitarynodulewithasmooth,uniform2.5-mm-thickcavitywall.FNABrevealednon–smallcelllungcancer.当前49页，总共96页。Figure18.

Bullettrackfromagunshotwoundina20-year-oldman.Close-upposteroanteriorradiographoftherightlungshowsasmoothlymarginated,thick-wallednodulewitheccentriclucencyinthemidlung.Notethebulletfragmentsoverlyingtherightlung.Thesefindingsareconsistentwithparenchymalhematomaandabullettrack.当前50页，总共96页。空泡征：空泡征为肿瘤内小的低密度影，多为2～3mm大小，1个或多个，CT扫描仅限于1～2个层面见到。空泡征是未闭塞的小支气管或肺泡，主要原因同支气管空气征一样，为癌细胞呈伏壁生长，部分肺泡腔和细支气管未被肿瘤组织填充，肿瘤内的纤维组织或瘢痕组织的牵拉而扩张。多见于BAC或腺癌当前51页，总共96页。支气管充气征是指结节内见到充气的支气管，CT表现为气体密度小管影。此征多见于中高分化的腺癌，癌细胞沿着支气管呈伏壁生长，肺的支架结构未被破坏，肿瘤内的支气管结构仍保存。有此征象的肿瘤与无此征象的肿瘤相比，具有相对低度恶性的生物学行为。在恶性SPN的发生率为26．9％～65．0％而在良性SPN，其发生率仅为0．0％～5．9％

当前52页，总共96页。SPN与支气管的关系I型：支气管被SPN截断II型：支气管进入SPN呈锥状中断Ⅲ型：支气管在SPN内呈长段开放状，并可进一步分叉Ⅳ型：支气管紧贴SPN边缘走行，管腔形态正常V型：支气管紧贴SPN边缘走行，管腔受压变扁ClinicalRadiology(2004)59,1121–1127当前53页，总共96页。当前54页，总共96页。当前55页，总共96页。当前56页，总共96页。当前57页，总共96页。当前58页，总共96页。当前59页，总共96页。恶性结节最常见的肿瘤一支气管关系是I型，其次为Ⅳ型，V型最少见；良性结节最常见的是V型，其次为I型，未见到Ⅱ型。就肿瘤一支气管关系类型而言，I型恶性SPN多于良性SPN，后者主要见于结核球；Ⅱ型仅见于恶性SPN；Ⅲ型可见于恶性和良性SPN，但前者的支气管形态僵硬，管腔保持通畅甚或轻度扩张；后者支气管形态柔软，走向自然，管腔扩张度不如恶性肿瘤，并常见支气管有多个树枝状分又及支气管呈断续状表现；IV型以恶性SPN占绝大多数V型则以良性SPN多见。当前60页，总共96页。SPN一支气管关系类型的病理基础膨胀性生长：瘤细胞增殖、堆积，呈实性压迫、推移邻近肺组织，由于肿瘤为支气管源性，故导致支气管在肿瘤边缘截断。伏壁性生长：以肺结构为支架，瘤细胞沿肺泡壁和肺泡隔爬行，经肺泡孔扩展，同时可经淋巴道、小气道或以直接浸润的方式从1个肺小叶扩展到另1个肺小叶，而支气管仍保持通畅，形成支气管充气征。当前61页，总共96页。支气管管壁由外向内的肿瘤浸润、管壁产生的纤维性增殖性反应使支气管管壁增厚、僵硬，加上瘤内成纤维化反应的牵拉，使瘤内的支气管不仅未被肿瘤压扁，反而保持高度的通畅，甚至有所扩张，形成恶性肿瘤的含气支气管征特有的表现。良性结节边缘的支气管未受肿瘤侵犯和成纤维化反应的影响，管壁仍很柔软，易受膨胀性生长的结节压迫，导致管腔变扁甚至闭塞。结核球引起支气管截断是由于后者参与形成包膜。炎性假瘤的含气支气管征由肺实质的渗出、实变、机化衬托引起，支气管形态自然，常见树枝状分叉，管腔内可有分泌物、出血或血栓，使支气管表现为断续状。当前62页，总共96页。SPN血管特征恶性结节增强超过良性结节CT增强值低于15HU倾向于良性CT净增值超过25HU，清除值5-31HU倾向恶性当前63页，总共96页。AJR2007;188:57-68当前64页，总共96页。Graphoffourdifferenttypesoftime-attenuationcurveofnodulehemodynamicsinconsiderationofbothwash-inandwashoutphasesofdynamicCT.Radiology2005;237:675-683当前65页，总共96页。PatternsofNoduleEnhancementatEarlyandDelayedEnhancementCT

当前66页，总共96页。PatternsofNoduleEnhancementaccordingtoHistologicDiagnosis当前67页，总共96页。Fig.4A

—Metastaticadenocarcinomain57-year-oldmanwithrectalcancershowsnetenhancementof25Handwashoutof5-31HondynamichelicalCTandpositiveuptakeonintegratedPET/CT.Lungwindowoftransversethin-section(2.5-mmcollimation)CTscanshows9-mmnodule(arrow)inleftupperlobe.当前68页，总共96页。Fig.3A

—Adenocarcinomain67-year-oldmanshowsnetenhancementof25Handwashoutof5-31HatdynamichelicalCTandpositiveuptakeatintegratedPET/CT.Lungwindowoftransversethin-section(2.5-mmcollimation)CTscanshows16-mmnodule(arrow)inleftupperlobehaslobulatedandspiculatedmargin.当前69页，总共96页。Figure3a.CTscansoftuberculomawithtypeIIenhancement(<25HUwash-in)ina58-year-oldman.(a)Transversethin-section(2.5-mmcollimation)scanobtainedwithlungwindowattheleveloftherightmainbronchusshows21-mmnodulewithlobulatedandspiculatedmarginintherightupperlobe.(b)Serialimageswithdynamicenhancementcurveforthenodule.Peakenhancementis49HU;netenhancement,3HU;andabsolutelossofenhancement(washout),1HU.当前70页，总共96页。Figure4a.CTscansoforganizingpneumonia(focalpneumoniawithoutspecificmicroorganism)withtypeIIIenhancement(25HUwash-inwithpersistentenhancement)ina58-year-oldwoman.(a)Transversethin-section(2.5-mmcollimation)scanobtainedwithlungwindowatthelevelofthehepaticdomeshows14-mmnodule(arrow)inrightlowerlobe.Bronchiectasisisalsoseeninbothlowerlobes.(b)Serialimageswithdynamicenhancementcurveforthenodule.Peakenhancementis118HU;netenhancement,69HU.Thisnoduleshowedpersistentenhancementwithoutabsolutelossofenhancement.当前71页，总共96页。Figure5.CTscansofleiomyomawithtypeIVenhancement(25HUwash-in,>31HUwashout)ina45-year-oldwoman.Serialimageswithdynamicenhancementcurvefortheleftlowerlobenoduleshowpeakenhancementis165HU;netenhancement,133HU;absolutelossofenhancement(washout),90HU;andtimetopeakenhancement,1minute.当前72页，总共96页。当前73页，总共96页。Figure1a.

(a)Transverse,nonenhancedspiralCTimage(3-mmcollimation)througharelativelyhomogeneous15-mmrightupperlobelungadenocarcinomarecurrenceina71-year-oldwoman.Notethemanuallyplacedregionofinterest(1)onanodule.Theregionofinterestispositionedcentrally,anditsshapeapproximatesthatofthenoduleonthecross-sectionalimage.Itsnetenhancementvaluewas14HU.(b)Photomicrographofthisadenocarcinomashowsanappearanceconsistentwithlymphangiticmetastasis.Notethecentralzoneofnecrosis(arrows).Thereislittlevascularstroma,whichmayhavebeenafactorinitsrelativelylowenhancementvalue.(AntibodytofactorVIII-associatedantigen;originalmagnification,x50.)当前74页，总共96页。周围型肺癌的血供源于支气管动脉，肿瘤间质内血管丰富，且分化不成熟，血管分布紊乱，基底膜不完整，管壁通透性高，有利于大分子造影剂渗入细胞间隙，部分肺癌微血管扩张，利于造影剂在血管内停留。炎性结节形成过程中，肺动脉水平上发生弥漫性血栓，血供直接源于支气管动脉，造影剂通过相对较直的、结构正常的血管进入间质，进入血管周围间质的造影剂因淋巴管的通畅加快了引流。部分恶性及良性病灶持续强化无清除可能与局部组织纤维化的程度数量相关。病理学基础：当前75页，总共96页。SPN生长速度评价大部分恶性结节倍增时间30-400天2年随访病灶稳定，倍增时间至少730天倾向良性疾病倍增时间小于7天，超过465天倾向良性直径小于1cm病灶较难评价Radiographics.2000;20:59-66当前76页，总共96页。计算公式

Td=Ti·log2/3·log(Di/Do)

Ti=intervaltimeDi=initialdiameterDo=finaldiameter当前77页，总共96页。Figure1.

Effectofinitialnodulesizeonperceptionofgrowth.Schematicillustratestwovolumedoublingsofa4-mmnoduleanda3-cmnodule.Becausetheeyeperceivesthearithmeticincreaseindiameterratherthanthechangeinvolume,thesmallernoduleappearstobegrowingmoreslowlythanthelargerone,eventhoughbotharedoublinginvolumeatthesamerate.当前78页，总共96页。Figure21a:

(a)CTscaninan80-year-oldmanshowsa2.5-cmrightupperlobenoduleattheposteriorsegment.(b)RepeatCTscanobtainedpriortotreatmentperformed2monthslatershowsrapidintervalenlargement.Thevolumetricdoublingtimewas26days.FNABrevealedmixedsmallcellandnon–smallcellcarcinoma.当前79页，总共96页。Bayesian

Analysis

根据临床资料和影像学特征计算pCapCa<0.12影像学随访pCa0.12-0.69行CT、PET检查pCa0.70-0.90行活检、手术pCa>0.90手术NEnglJMed2003Jun19;348(25):2535-42当前80页，总共96页。EffectofageandsmokinghistoryonpCainanindeterminatepulmonarynodule.Close-upchestCTscanoftherightlungshowsa7-mm,smoothlymarginated,noncalcifiednoduleinthemiddlelobe.Onthebasisofdecisionanalysis,observationwouldbethemostcost-effectivemanagementstrategyina35-year-oldnonsmoker(pCa=0.01)orcurrentsmoker(pCa=0.05),andbiopsywouldbethemostcost-effectivemanagementstrategyina70-year-oldnonsmoker(pCa=0.07)orcurrentsmoker(pCa=0.50)当前81页，总共96页。其他辅助检查对于SPN诊断价值PET胸部低剂量螺旋CTFNABVATS当前82页，总共96页。PET直径1-3cm实性结节，敏感性94％特异性83％SUV值超过2.5即为阳性假阳性：局部感染，炎症，肉芽肿性疾病假阴性：病灶直径小于1cm，类癌，BAC当前83页，总共96页。Figure7a.

Non-smallcelllungcancerina65-year-oldman.(a)ChestCTscanshowsasmallnoduleintheleftlowerlobe.(b)AxialFDGPETscanshowsmarkedFDGaccumulationinthenodule