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WORLDINVESTMENTREPORT
UNITEDNATIONSCONFERENCEONTRADE
ANDDEVELOPMENT
2022
INTERNATIONALTAXREFORMS
ANDSUSTAINABLEINVESTMENT
Geneva,2022
SalesNo.E.22.II.D.20
©2022,UnitedNations
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MentionofanyfirmorlicensedprocessdoesnotimplytheendorsementoftheUnitedNations.Thispublicationhasbeeneditedexternally.
UnitedNationspublicationissuedbytheUnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopment.
UNCTAD/WIR/2022
ISBN978-92-1-113049-2
eISBN978-92-1-001543-1
PrintISSN1020-2218
OnlineISSN2225-1677
Preface
iii
PREFACE
Globalflowsofforeigndirectinvestmentrecoveredtopre-pandemiclevelslastyear,reaching$1.6trillion.Cross-borderdealsandinternationalprojectfinancewereparticularlystrong,encouragedbyloosefinancingconditionsandinfrastructurestimulus.However,therecoveryofgreenfieldinvestmentinindustryremainsfragile,especiallyindevelopingcountries.
Thisfragilegrowthofrealproductiveinvestmentislikelytopersistin2022.ThefalloutofthewarinUkrainewiththetriplefood,fuelandfinancecrises,alongwiththeongoingCOVID-19pandemicandclimatedisruption,areaddingstresses,particularlyindevelopingcountries.Globalgrowthestimatesfortheyeararealreadydownbyafullpercentagepoint.Thereissignificantriskthatthemomentumforrecoveryininternationalinvestmentwillstallprematurely,hamperingeffortstoboostfinanceforsustainabledevelopment.
TheWorldInvestmentReportsupportspolicymakersbymonitoringglobalandregionalinvestmenttrendsandnationalandinternationalinvestmentpolicydevelopments.ThereportreviewsinvestmentintheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsandinclimatechangemitigationandadaptation.Italsolooksatsustainablefinancetrendsincapitalmarketsandamonginstitutionalinvestors.
Thecomingyearswillseetheimplementationoffundamentalreformsininternationaltaxation.Thesereformsareexpectedtohavemajorimplicationsforinvestmentpolicy,especiallyincountriesthatmakeuseoffiscalincentivesandspecialeconomiczones.Thereportofthisyearprovidesaguideforpolicymakerstonavigatethecomplexnewtaxrulesandtoadjusttheirinvestmentstrategies.
Icommendthisreporttoallengagedinpromotinginvestmentinsustainabledevelopment.
AntónioGuterres
Secretary-GeneraloftheUnitedNations
iv
WorldInvestmentReport2022Internationaltaxreformsandsustainableinvestment
FOREWORD
TheglobalenvironmentforinternationalinvestmentchangeddramaticallywiththeonsetofthewarinUkraine,whichoccurredwhiletheworldwasstillreelingfromtheimpactofthepandemic.Thewarishavingeffectswellbeyonditsimmediatevicinity,causingacost-of-livingcrisisaffectingbillionsofpeoplearoundtheworld,withrisingpricesforenergyandfoodreducingrealincomesandaggravatingdebtstress.InvestoruncertaintyandriskaversitycouldputsignificantdownwardpressureonglobalFDIthisyear.
Theeffectsoninvestmentflowstodevelopingcountriesin2022andbeyondaredifficulttoanticipate.ApartfromdirecteffectsoncountriesinCentralAsiawithcloseinvestmenttiesintheregion,theimpactonotherswillbemostlyindirectanddependontheextentoftheirexposuretothetriplecrisis–infood,fuelandfinance–causedbytheconflictandtheirconsequenteconomicandpoliticalinstability–keydeterminantsofinternationalprivateinvestment.Ifthepastisanindication,thelasttimefoodpriceswerethishigh–duringthe2007–2008foodcrisis–therewereriotsinmorethan60countries.
Theoutcomewillbeofenormoussignificancefordevelopmentprospects.Theneedforinvestmentinproductivecapacity,intheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)andinclimatechangemitigationandadaptationisenormous.Currentinvestmenttrendsintheseareasarenotunanimouslypositive.AlthoughglobalFDIflowsreboundedstronglyin2021,industrialinvestmentremainsweakandwellbelowpre-pandemiclevels,especiallyinthepoorestcountries;SDGinvestment–projectfinanceininfrastructure,foodsecurity,waterandsanitation,andhealth–isgrowingbutnotenoughtoreachthegoalsby2030;andinvestmentinclimatechangemitigation,especiallyrenewables,isboomingbutmostofitremainsindevelopedcountriesandadaptationinvestmentcontinuestolagwellbehind.
Worryingly,someemergingindicatorssuggestthatthewarinUkrainecouldbecomeasetbackintheenergytransition,withincreasedfossilfuelproductionincountriespreviouslycommittedtoreducingemissions.Inthefirstquarterof2022,mostofthe5,000largestmultinationalenterprisesreviseddownwardtheirearningsforecastsfor2022.Alarmingly,whileextractiveindustriesrevisedupwardstheirexpectedearnings,withoilandgasat+22percentandcoalat+32percentofexpectedearnings,renewableenergycompaniesreleaseddownwardrevisionsofanaverageof-22percentofexpectedearnings,lendingcredencetotheintuitionthatcurrentconditionsriskreversingyearsofprogresstowardsinvestinginsustainableenergy.ThisisespeciallyworryingasglobalCO2emissionsfromenergycombustionandindustrialprocessesreboundedin2021toreachtheirhighesteverannuallevel.
ToachievetheSDGsitisimperativethatmorefundsarechanneledtowheretheyaremostneeded,ontheground,indevelopingcountries.Butalsoanimportanteffortwillhavetocomefromdomesticresourcemobilization.Fromthatperspective,theongoinginternationaltaxreformsledbytheG20andtheOECD,whichwestudyextensivelyinthisreport,areamajorstepforward.Theyaimtoensurethatmultinationalspaytheirfairshareoftaxeswheretheyoperate,andtheyhavethepotentialtogiveasignificantboosttotaxrevenuesindevelopingcountries.
Foreword
v
However,thewarinUkrainehasfurthercomplicateddomesticresourcemobilizationindevelopingcountries,alreadyworsenedbytheCOVID-19pandemicandtheincreasedfrequencyofnaturaldisastersinthecontextofclimatechange.Inthemidstofrisingandunsustainabledebtlevels,withoutadequatemultilateralmechanismsforrestructuring,countriesarebeingforcedtoreducetheirfiscalspaceatatimewhentheyshouldbeincreasingit.
TheInternationalLabourOrganizationsuggeststhatthesocialprotectionfinancinggapstandsat$1.2trillionperyearindevelopingcountries,partofthe$4.3trillionweatUNCTADestimateastheyearlygapinSDGfinancing.Andevenwithfoodandenergyimportbills,andworseningcostsofborrowingduetohigherinterestrates,developingcountries’primaryfiscalbalancehasshrunkby$315billionsincethestartofthewar.
Thatiswhyinternationalinvestmentplaysacriticalcomplementaryroletodomesticpublicinvestment.Andthenewtaxruleswillaffecthowcountrieshavetraditionallypromoted–andoftencompeted–forinternationalinvestment,throughlowtaxrates,fiscalincentivesandspecialeconomiczones.
Thetaxreformsareanopportunityfordevelopingcountries,notonlyfromarevenueperspective,butalsofromaninvestmentattractionperspective.Strategically,taxcompetitionwilldecrease.Practically,theneedtoreviewtheinvestmentpromotiontoolkitisachancetomakecostlyincentivesmoresustainable.
Therewillbechallenges.Developingcountriesfaceconstraintsintheirresponsestothereforms,becauseofalackoftechnicalcapacitytodealwiththecomplexityofthetaxchanges,andbecauseofinvestmenttreatycommitmentsthatcouldhindereffectivefiscalpolicyaction.Theinternationalcommunityhastheobligationtohelp.Itcandosothroughtechnicalassistance,byagreeingasolutiontoproblemscausedbyinternationalinvestmentagreements,andbyputtinginplacesafeguardsthatprotectthetaxrevenuesofthepoorestcountries.Theseeffortsshouldbepartofabroadermultilateralendeavortowardsreininginillicitfinancialflows,especiallyinthedevelopingworld.Thisreportpointstheway.
Itisimportantthatweactnow.Eventhoughcountriesfaceveryalarmingimmediateproblemsstemmingfromthecost-of-livingcrisis,itisimportantweareabletoinvestinthelongterm.Becausetheshorttermandlongtermstartatthesametime.Andthetimeisnow.
RebecaGrynspan
Secretary-GeneralofUNCTAD
vi
WorldInvestmentReport2022Internationaltaxreformsandsustainableinvestment
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TheWorldInvestmentReport2022waspreparedbyateamledbyJamesX.Zhan.TheteammembersincludedRichardBolwijn,BrunoCasella,JosephClements,BernaDogan,HamedElKady,KumiEndo,AnastasiaLeskova,MassimoMeloni,AnthonyMiller,AbrahamNegash,YongfuOuyang,DianaRosert,AmeliaU.Santos-Paulino,ChangbumSon,AstritSulstarova,ClaudiaTrentini,JoergWeberandKee
HweeWee.
ResearchsupportandinputswereprovidedbyGregoryAuclair,HamidrezaBakhtiarizadeh,MagdalenaBulitGoñi,JoãodeCamargoMainente,MalouCelander,AntoineCornevin,JulietteGailly,TiffanyGrabski,VicenteGuazzini,MaximeLadrière,CorliLeRoux,IanaMiachenkova,JosefOstřanský,HayleyMariePallan,SangHyunPark,LisaRemke,SamuelRingier,RitaSchmutz,BaptisteSouillard,IrinaStanyukova,IlanStrauss,YihuaTengandAnqiWang.
CommentsandcontributionswereprovidedbyYosephAsmelash,ChantalDupasquier,IsabelGarzaRodriguezandPaulWessendorp,aswellastheOfficeoftheSecretaryGeneral.
StatisticalassistancewasprovidedbyMohamedChirazBalyandBradleyBoicourt.ITassistancewasprovidedbyChrysanthiKourti.
Themanuscriptwascopy-editedbyLiseLingo.Thedesignofthechartsandinfographics,andthetypesettingofthereportweredonebyThierryAlran,assistedbyAlexandraSoniaGarcês.ProductionofthereportwassupportedbyElisabethAnodeau-MareschalandKatiaVieu.AdditionalsupportwasprovidedbyNathalieEulaertsandSivanlaSikounnavong.
MichaelKeenactedasprincipaladvisoronthethemechapterofthereport.ThethemechapteralsobenefitedfromthecollaborationwiththeteamattheWUGlobalTaxPolicyCentreofViennaUniversityofEconomicsandBusinessledbyJeffreyOwens,includingIvanLazarov,BelissaFerreiraLiotti,RuthWamuyuMainaandJoyWaruguruNdubai.
Atvariousstagesofthepreparationofthethemechapter,inparticularduringthekick-offeventattheWorldInvestmentForumandvariousexpertmeetingsorganizedtodiscussdrafts,theteambenefitedfromcommentsandinputsreceivedfromexternalexperts:FlurimAliu,DavidBradbury,JulienChaisse,AlexCobham,MichaelDevereux,LorraineEden,JavierGarcia-Bernardo,AnaCintaGonzalezCabral,TiborHanappi,LiselottKana,AnitaKapur,PetrJanský,MichaelLennard,PierceO’Reilly,ZahiraQuattrocchi,AugustinRedonda,ToveMariaRydingandLoganWort.
Theteamisgratefulforadvice,inputandcommentsatallstagesfromcolleaguesininternationalorganizationsandotherexperts,includingVincentBeyer,MartinDietrichBrauch,AbdulMuheetChowdhary,SabrineMarsit,SuzyH.Nikièma,MarceloOlarreaga,JoshuaPaine,MaríaFlorenciaSarmiento,AlessandroTurina,ChristianVolpeMartincusandSebastianWuschka.
Numerousofficialsincentralbanks,nationalgovernmentagencies,internationalorganizationsandnon-governmentalorganizationsalsocontributedtothereport.
TableofContents
vii
TABLEOF
CONTENTS
PREFACE iii
FOREWORD iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi
ABBREVIATIONS x
KEYMESSAGES xi
CHAPTERI.GLOBALINVESTMENTTRENDSANDPROSPECTS
1
A.INVESTMENTTRENDS
2
1.Globaltrends
2
2.Trendsbygeography
7
3.Trendsbytypeandsector
22
B.SDGANDCLIMATECHANGEINVESTMENTTRENDS
26
1.SDGinvestmenttrends
26
2.Climatechangeandinvestment
32
C.INTERNATIONALPRODUCTION
39
1.Keyindicatorsofinternationalproduction
39
2.InternationalizationtrendsofthelargestMNEs
40
3.InternationalizationtrendsofdigitalMNEs
42
4.InternationalizationtrendsofSMEs
47
CHAPTERII.RECENTPOLICYDEVELOPMENTSANDKEYISSUES
53
INTRODUCTION
54
A.NATIONALINVESTMENTPOLICIES
56
1.Overalltrends
56
2.M&Acontrolsaffectingforeigninvestors
63
B.INTERNATIONALINVESTMENTPOLICIES
65
1.TrendsinIIAs:newtreatiesandotherpolicydevelopments
65
2.Keyinvestment-relatedissuesinmegaregionalagreements
69
3.TrendsinISDS:newcasesandoutcomes
73
viii
WorldInvestmentReport2022Internationaltaxreformsandsustainableinvestment
C.KEYTRENDSINTHETAXATIONOFINVESTMENT
76
1.Evolutionofcorporateincometaxrates
77
2.Taxincentivesforinvestment
78
3.Taxationmeasuresandinternationalinvestmentpolicies
87
CHAPTERIII.THEIMPACTOFAGLOBALMINIMUMTAXONFDI
99
INTRODUCTION
100
A.HOWAMINIMUMTAXAFFECTSFDI–ATHEORETICALFRAMEWORK
103
1.Tax-investmentspilloverchannels
103
2.ThemechanicsofPillarII
107
3.PillarIIandFDI
109
B.ESTIMATINGTHEIMPACTOFPILLARIIONFDI
111
1.CorporateincometaxesonFDI
111
2.PillarIIandthetaxationofFDIincome
118
3.TheeffectofhighertaxesonglobalFDI
126
C.IMPLICATIONSOFPILLARIIFORTAXINCENTIVES
131
1.TaxincentivesandETRs
131
2.PillarIIandtaxincentives:anempiricalassessment
132
3.ImpactoftheGloBErulesontaxincentives
135
4.Detailedassessmentofimpactonin-scopeincentives
137
D.RESHAPINGINVESTMENTPOLICYFORAGLOBALMINIMUM
TAXENVIRONMENT
142
1.Fiscalinvestmentpolicyresponses
142
2.Challengesforinvestmentpolicymakersandinstitutions
151
3.Strategicinvestmentpolicyimplications
153
CHAPTERIV.CAPITALMARKETSANDSUSTAINABLEFINANCE
161
INTRODUCTION
162
A.SUSTAINABILITY-THEMEDCAPITALMARKETPRODUCTS
164
1.Sustainablefunds
164
2.Sustainablebondmarkets
170
TableofContents
ix
B.INSTITUTIONALINVESTORS
175
C.STOCKEXCHANGESANDMARKETINFRASTRUCTURE
179
1.Stockexchangesandderivativesexchanges
179
2.Advancinggenderequality
182
D.POLICIES,REGULATIONSANDSTANDARDS
184
1.Nationalsustainablefinancepoliciesandregulations
184
2.Internationalregulationsandstandardsetting
190
3.Lessonslearned
192
E.CLIMATEACTION
193
1.Carbonemissionsinpublicmarkets
193
2.TheNetZeromovement
194
3.Climateactionbypublicpensionandsovereignwealthfunds
196
4.Stockexchangestrategiesforclimateaction
198
REFERENCES
203
ANNEXTABLES
209
Annextable1.FDIflows,byregionandeconomy,2016–2021
210
Annextable2.FDIstock,byregionandeconomy,2000,2010and2021......214
ONLINEONLY:REGIONALTRENDS
AFRICA
DEVELOPINGASIA
LATINAMERICAANDTHECARIBBEAN
STRUCTURALLYWEAK,VULNERABLEANDSMALLECONOMIES:
LeastDevelopedCountries(LDCs)
LandlockedDevelopingCountries(LLDCs)
SmallislanddevelopingStates(SIDS)
x
WorldInvestmentReport2022Internationaltaxreformsandsustainableinvestment
ABBREVIATIONS
AETR
averageeffectivetaxrate
IIR
IncomeInclusionRule
AfCFTA
AfricanContinentFreeTradeArea
IMF
InternationalMonetaryFund
ASEAN
AssociationofSouth-EastAsianNations
IOSCO
InternationalOrganizationofSecuritiesCommissions
AUM
assetsundermanagement
IP
intellectualproperty
BEA
BureauofEconomicAnalysis
IPA
investmentpromotionagency
BEPS
BaseErosionandProfitShifting
IPFSD
InvestmentPolicyFrameworkforSustainableDevelopment
BIT
bilateralinvestmenttreaty
ISDS
investor–Statedisputesettlement
CbCR
country-by-countryreporting
ISSB
InternationalSustainabilityStandardsBoard
CDP
CarbonDisclosureProject
LDC
leastdevelopedcountry
CIS
CommonwealthofIndependentStates
LLDC
landlockeddevelopingcountry
CIT
corporateincometax
M&A
mergerandacquisition
COVID-19
coronavirusdisease2019
METR
marginaleffectivetaxrate
CPTPP
ComprehensiveandProgressiveAgreement
forTrans-PacificPartnership
MFN
MNE
mostfavourednation
multinationalenterprise
CSR
corporatesocialresponsibility
NAFTA
NorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement
DTT
doubletaxationtreaty
NT
nationaltreatment
ECT
EnergyCharterTreaty
OFC
offshorefinancialcentre
EIA
EconomicImpactAssessment
OIC
OrganisationofIslamicCooperation
ESG
environmental,socialandgovernance
PPP
public-privatepartnership
ETR
effectivetaxrate
QDMTT
qualifieddomesticminimumtop-uptax
EU
EuropeanUnion
R&D
researchanddevelopment
FET
fairandequitabletreatment
RCEP
RegionalComprehensiveEconomicPartnership
FTA
freetradeagreement
SDGs
SustainableDevelopmentGoals
GATS
GeneralAgreementonTradeinServices
SEZ
specialeconomiczone
GATT
GeneralAgreementonTradeandTariffs
SIDS
smallislanddevelopingStates
GCI
GuidanceonCoreIndicators
SMEs
smallandmedium-sizedenterprises
GDP
grossdomesticproduct
SSE
SustainableStockExchanges
GHG
greenhousegas
STR
statutorytaxrate
GILTI
globalintangiblelow-taxedincome
STTR
SubjecttoTaxRule
GloBE
GlobalAnti-BaseErosion
TIP
treatywithinvestmentprovision
GSSB
GRIStandardSettingBoard
TRIPS
Trade-RelatedAspectsofIntellectualPropertyRights
GTED
GovernmentTaxExpenditureDatabase
UNCITRAL
UnitedNationsCommissiononInternationalTradeLaw
GVC
globalvaluechain
UNEP
UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme
ICCC
IndependentConsumerandCompetitionCommission
UNODC
UnitedNationsOfficeonDrugsandCrime
ICT
informationandcommunicationtechnology
USMCA
UnitedStates–Mexico–CanadaAgreement
ICMA
InternationalCapitalMarketAssociation
WAEMU
WestAfricanEconomicandMonetaryUnion
ICSID
InternationalCentreforSettlementofInvestmentDisputes
WFE
WorldFederationofExchanges
IFC
InternationalFinanceCorporation
WHT
withholdingtax
IFRS
InternationalFinancialReportingStandards
WIR
WorldInvestmentReport
IIA
internationalinvestmentagreement
WTO
WorldTradeOrganization
KeyMessages
xi
KEYMESSAGES
INVESTMENTTRENDSANDPROSPECTS
Globalforeigndirectinvestment(FDI)flowsin2021were$1.58trillion,up64percentfromtheexceptionallylowlevelin2020.Therecoveryshowedsignificantreboundmomentum,withboomingmergerandacquisition(M&A)marketsandrapidgrowthininternationalprojectfinancebecauseofloosefinancingconditionsandmajorinfrastructurestimuluspackages.
However,theglobalenvironmentforinternationalbusinessandcross-borderinvestmentchangeddramaticallyin2022.ThewarinUkraine–ontopofthelingeringeffectsofthepandemic–iscausingatriplefood,fuelandfinancecrisisinmanycountriesaroundtheworld.InvestoruncertaintycouldputsignificantdownwardpressureonglobalFDIin2022.
+64%
GlobalFDI
rebound
$1.6trillion
The2021growthmomentumisunlikelytobesustained.GlobalFDIflowsin2022will
likelymoveonadownwardtrajectory,atbestremainingflat.Newprojectactivityis
alreadyshowingsignsofincreasedriskaversionamonginvestors:preliminarydatafor
Q12022showgreenfieldprojectnumbersdown21percentandinternationalproject
financedealsdown4percent.
The2021FDIrecoverybroughtgrowthinallregions.However,almostthreequartersof
theglobalincreasewasduetotheupswingindevelopedcountries,whereFDIreached
$746billion–morethandoublethe2020level.Theincreasewasmostlycausedby
M&Atransactionsandhighlevelsofretainedearningsofmultinationalenterprises(MNEs).Those,inturn,ledtosizeableintrafirmfinancialflowsandmajorFDIfluctuationsinlargeinvestmenthubs.
Thehighlevelsofretainedearningsin2021weretheresultofrecordMNEprofits.Theprofitabilityofthelargest5,000MNEsdoubledtomorethan8percentofsales.Profitswerehighespeciallyindevelopedcountries,becauseofthereleaseofpent-updemand,lowfinancingcostsandsignificantgovernmentsupport.
Despitehighprofits,theappetiteofMNEsforinvestinginnewproductiveassetsoverseasremainedweak.Whileinfrastructure-orientedinternationalprojectfinancewasup68percentandcross-borderM&Aswereup43percent,greenfieldinvestmentnumbersincreasedbyonly11percent,stillonefifthbelowpre-pandemiclevels.Thevalueofgreenfieldannouncementsoverallroseby15percent,to$659billion,butremainedflatindevelopingcountriesat$259billion–stagnatingatthelowestleveleverrecorded.Thisisaconcern,asnewinvestmentsinindustryarecrucialforeconomicgrowthanddevelopmentprospects.
x2
2021
MNE
proits
FDIflowstodevelopingeconomiesgrewmoreslowlythanthosetodevelopedregions
butstillincreasedby30percent,to$837billion.Theincreasewasmainlytheresult
ofstronggrowthperformanceinAsia,apartialrecoveryinLatinAmericaandthe
Caribbean,andanupswinginAfrica.Theshareofdevelopingcountriesinglobalflows
remainedjustabove50percent.
•FDIflowstoAfricareached$83billion,from$39billionin2020.Mostrecipientssawa
moderateriseinFDI.Thetotalforthecontinentwasinflatedbyasinglelargeintrafirm
financialtransaction.Greenfieldannouncementsremaineddepressed,butinternational
projectfinancedealswereup26percent,withstronggrowthinextractiveindustries.
Developed
Developing
LDCs
xii
WorldInvestmentReport2022Internationaltaxreformsandsustainableinvestment
+134%
+30%
+13%
•IndevelopingAsia,despitesuccessivewavesofCOVID-19,FDIrosetoanall-timehighforthethirdconsecutiveyear,reaching$619billion.Asiaisthelargestrecipientregion,accountingfor40percentofglobalFDI.However,inflowsremainhighlyconcentrated;sixeconomiesaccountformorethan80percentofFDItotheregion.
•FDIinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanroseby56percentto$134billion.Mosteconomiessawinflowsrebound,withonlyafewexperiencingfurtherdeclines,causedbypandemic-inducedeconomiccrises.Totalinflowsremainedabout
15percentbelowthepre-pandemiclevel.
•FDIflowstothestructurallyweak,vulnerableandsmalleconomiesroseby15percentto$39billion.Inflowstotheleastdevelopedcountries(LDCs),landlockeddevelopingcountries(LLDCs)andsmallislanddevelopingStates(SIDS)combinedaccountedforonly2.5percentoftheworldtotalin2021,downfrom3.5percentin2020.
InternationalinvestmentinsectorsrelevantfortheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)indevelopingcountriesincreasedsubstantiallyin2021,by70percent.ThecombinedvalueofgreenfieldannouncementsandinternationalprojectfinancedealsinSDGsectorsexceededthepre-pandemiclevelbyalmost20percent.Mostofthegrowthwenttorenewableenergy.InvestmentactivityinotherSDG-relatedsectors–includinginfrastructure,foodandagriculture,health,andWASH–sawonlyapartialrecovery.
Renewableenergyandenergy-efficiencyprojectsrepresentthebulkofclimatechangeinvestments.Internationalprivateinvestmentinclimatechangesectorsisdirectedalmostexclusivelytomitigation;only5percentgoestoadaptationprojects.Morethan60percentisinvestedindevelopedcountries,where85percentofprojectsarepurelyprivatelyfinanced.Incontrast,almosthalfoftheprojectsindevelopingcountriesrequiresomeformofpublicsectorparticipation.
Climateinvestment
2021
withtotal
projectvalues
2x
InternationalprojectfinanceisincreasinglyimportantforSDGandclimatechangeinvestment.Thestronggrowthperformanceofinternationalprojectfinancecanbeexplainedbyfavourablefinancingconditions,infrastructurestimulusandsignificantinterestonthepartoffinancialmarketinvestorstoparticipateinlarge-scaleprojectsthatrequiremultiplefinanciers.Theinstrumentalsoenablesgovernmentstoleveragepublicinvestmentthroughprivatefinancepartic
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