语言教学课程原理第七章

Teachersandcoursedesign语言教师与语言课程设计Whenonehasanewcoursetodesign,whenacourseneedstoberevisedoradapted,forwhateverreason,shouldoneconcentrateonmethodologytobeginwith,andlookatclassroomtechniquesasapriority?Orshouldasyllabusbemappedoutinadvance?Methodologyfirst:thepathThesyllabusfirst:thegoalAsynthesis两者矛盾的统一ConstraintsinsyllabusdesignMethodologyfirst:thepath

Terrell’snaturalapproachImmersionteachingTeachinglanguageascommunicationTerrell’snaturalapproachBackgroundThenaturalapproachisanapproachproposedbyKrashenandTerrelltodevelopteachingprincipleswhichemphasizenaturalcommunicationratherthanformalgrammarstudyandaretolerantoflearner’serrors.Itpaysparticularattentiontotheinformalacquisitionoflanguagerules.ThecoreoftheNaturalApproachislanguageacquisitionwhichisconsideredasubconsciousprocess,dependentontwofactors:theamountofcomprehensibleinputthestudentsget,andthestrengthoftheiraffectivefilters,thatis,theamountofinputthestudents“allowin”.Theoreticalbasis1)Acquisition-learningdistinctionhypothesis2)Monitorhypothesis3)Naturalorderhypothesis4)Inputhypothesis5)Affective-filterhypothesisGeneralprinciplesTerrellstressedthreegeneralprinciplesonwhichlanguageteachingshouldbebased:1)theclassroomshouldbedevotedprimarilytoactivitieswhichfosteracquisition(activitieswhichpromotelearningmightbeassignedashomework);2)theinstructorshouldnotcorrectstudentspeecherrorsdirectly;and3)thestudentsshouldbeallowedtorespondineitherthetargetlanguage,theirnativelanguage,oramixtureofthetwo.(Terrell1982:12)Intake“Themajorfunctionofthesecondlanguageclassroom,istoprovideintakeforacquisition…onecouldalsosaythatthemajorchallengefacingthefieldofappliedlinguisticsistocreatematerialsandcontextsthatprovideintake”(Krashen1981:101).Intakedoesnothaveasyllabusthatcanbecreatedbythelinguistoranyoneelse.Itappearsofitsownaccord,andbothlinguistandteachermustbealivetoitspresence.Immersionteaching

由来：“沉浸式双语教育”(immersionbilingualeducation)源于加拿大双语教育实验，也被译为“浸入式双语教育”、“浸泡式双语教育”。20世纪60年代，居住在加拿大魁北克省圣·兰伯特学区的英裔单语加拿大人意识到，让子女掌握法语是他们未来就业和生存的必要条件。于是他们联合起来向教育当局提交了一份法语沉浸式双语教学方案，方案被教育当局接受。1965年以后，加拿大先后建立了2000所左右的沉浸式双语学校。到20世纪70年代，这一教学模式取得了意想不到的效果。

“沉浸式”双语教育模式不仅在加拿大得到了肯定和发展，而且先后被借鉴到美国、澳大利亚、爱尔兰、芬兰、日本、瑞士、新西兰等许多国家和地区，极大地推动了世界许多国家和地区双语教育的发展。

含义：在加拿大，“沉浸式双语教育”是一个笼统的概念。在实施过程中，起始时间与时间长短存在较大的差异。按起始时间，沉浸式双语教育可以划分为三种类型：一是早期沉浸式双语教育，通常从幼儿园或幼儿阶段开始实施;二是中期沉浸式双语教育，通常从9岁或10岁开始实施;三是后期沉浸式双语教育，通常从中学时代开始实施。按第二语言或外语的使用比例，沉浸式双语教育可划分为两种类型：一是“完全沉浸式双语教育”，开始时，第二语言作为100%的教学语言，两年或三年以后，第二语言的比例降低至80%，再过三年或四年以后，第二语言的比例降至50%左右;二是“部分沉浸式双语教育”，第二语言的比例始终占50%左右。ImmersionprogramsinCanadaTheimmersionprogramsinCanadawhichalsomadegreatachievements.Immersionprogramreferstoabilingualeducationapproachinwhichchildrenwhospeakonlyonelanguageenteraschoolwhereasecondlanguageisthemediumofinstructionforallthestudents(Genesee,1983).Inthiscase,thisforeignlanguagebecomesamediumoflearningandteaching,bywhichstudentsnotonlylearntheknowledgeofacademicsubjects,butalsoimprovetheirproficiencyofthesecondlanguage.Itsastonishingachievementsandsuccessfulexperiencehavedeeplyimpressedtheworld.Chinesescholarshavenoticedthisfashionandbegantohaveatry.Inarecentreviewoftheliteratureonimmersionexperiments,Geneseecharacterizesimmersionbythefollowingpedagogicalconditions:1.Thestudentsarepermittedtousetheirhomelanguageinschoolandintheclassroomatleastduringtheinitialpartoftheprogram.Thestudentscontinuetousetheirhomelanguageamongstthemselvesatallstagesoftheprogram.2.Attemptsbythestudentstousethesecondlanguageforcommunicativepurposesarestronglyencouragedbytheteachersorconversely,grammaticalorstructuralerrorsinthestudents’communicativeuseofthesecondlanguagearenotgivenundueattention.3.Boththefirstandsecondlanguagesareusedforregularcurriculuminstructioninadditiontolanguageartsinstruction.(Genesee1983:3)WhatistheDifferencebetweensyllabusandcurriculum?

Answer:

Curriculumisafocusofstudy,consistingofvariouscoursesalldesignedtoreachaparticularproficiencyorqualification.Forinstancesomehighschoolsofferacollege-prepcurriculum,whichisdesignedtoprepareastudentfortherigorsofcollegestudy.Emphasiswillbeonthehumanities(history,English,etc.)andsciences(biology,math,chemistry,physics,etc.).Ontheotherhand,somehighschoolsofferavocational-prepcurriculum,whichincludesspecificskill-buildingcourses(cosmetology,constructiontrades,electronics,computerscience,etc.).

Asyllabusissimplyanoutlineandtimelineofaparticularcourse.Itwilltypicallygiveabriefoverviewofthecourseobjectives,courseexpectations,listreadingassignments,homeworkdeadlines,andexamdates.Itistypicallyavailableonthefirstdayofacollegecourse,andastudentisexpectedtoknowwhatisinthesyllabusthroughoutthecourse.Thepurposeofthesyllabusistoallowthestudenttoworktheirschedulefortheirownmaximumefficiencyandeffectiveness.Ithelpstoavoidconflictswithothercourses,anditpreventssomeonefromaccusingaprofessorofunfairlyaddingassignmentsmid-term.Sterndescribedthebasicphilosophyofimmersionintheseterms:

Inordertolearnalanguage,itisimportantthatlearnersfromaveryearlystageoflanguagelearningbecomeinvolvedinreal-lifecommunication….Themostaccessibleformof‘reallife’istheschoolsituationitself,andbyofferingpartoftheschoolcurriculumoreventhewholecurriculuminthesecondlanguage,thelearnerisimmersedintoacommunicativesettinginwhichthesecondlanguageisusednaturally.(Stren1980:57-8)Thelearnerhastoconcentrateonacquiringnotlanguage,but“techniquesforlanguageacquisition,”orwhatSternhascalled“copingtechniques”(Stern1981).第二语言不仅是学习的内容，而且是学习的工具。Teachinglanguageascommunication

Ithasbeensuggestedthatmanyteachers,seeingtheirmainpurposenowasenablinglearnerstobecomecommunicativelyproficient,requirenewkindsoflanguageteachingmaterials.Usingthesematerials,learnerswillbeencouragedtoapplytheirnaturalabilitiesofinterpretation,expression,andnegotiation-thelastbeingthecentralorpivotalactivityinperformingallcommunicativeacts.TeachinglanguageascommunicationAlthoughthisisanargumentbaseduponatheoryofthenatureoflanguageascommunication(alinguistictheory),ratherthanonatheoryofhowweacquireit(apsycholinguistictheory),itleadstoconclusionsthataresimilartotheargumentsoutlinedpreviously–namely,thatteachersandcoursedesignersoughttobemuchmoreconcernedwiththewayslearnersmayactuponandinteractwithlinguisticdatathanwiththepriorselectionandorganizationofthedata.Thesalientcharacteristicofallthreeapproachesisthattheyareallprocess-oriented.Allcomeviadifferentpathstosimilarconclusionsaboutlanguageteaching:thattheteacher’sconcernshouldbeprimarilywiththeroute,notthegoal-withwhatRichterichhascalledthe“learner’strajectory”(Richterichetal.1981).Alongtheway,proceduresoflinguisticsyllabusdesignareconsideredmarginallyimportantifnotirrelevant.Thesyllabusfirst:thegoalInChapter1,variationsonthetraditionallinguisticsyllabuswerepresented,andinChapter6fivecontemporaryapproachestosyllabusdesignwerediscussed.AccordingtoTheElementsofLanguageCurriculum:ASystematicApproachtoProgramDevelopment,languageteachingactivitiescanbedividedintofourdifferentcategories.CATEGORIESDEFINITIONApproachesWaysofdefiningwhatandhowthestudentsneedtolearnSyllabusesWaysoforganizingthecourseandmaterialsTechniquesWaysofpresentingthematerialsandteachingExercisesWaysofpracticingwhathasbeenpresentedMcKay(1987,p11)usesthetermsyllabusinaspecialwaythatseemstoapplyhere:“Aaylllabusprovideafocusforwhatshouldbestudied,alongwitharationaleforhowthatcontentshouldbeselectedandordered.Currently,theliteraturereflectsthreemajortypesofsyllabuses:structural,situational,andnotional.”TheopinionsofYaldenFromtheperspectiveoflanguagecourseplanning,thoughthetrajectoryisimportant,onecannotignorethegoal.Atleastfornow,societyexpectsteacherstobeabletodescribeandjustifyobjectivesintermsoflanguagebehavioratthepointofexitfromacourseorcourses.Teachersareaccountable;learnerswanttoknowwheretheyaregoing.Theproblemthusbecomestoaccommodatebothconcerns:ontheonehand,concernforappropriateandeffectiveclassroominteraction,andontheother,forasatisfactoryoutcomegiventhetimeandfacilitiesavailable.Concernwithmethodologyaswellaswithsyllabusdesigncanhelpinthistask.AsynthesisHowmayasynthesisbeaccomplished?Thebalancebetweenlanguagestudyandlanguageuse.Sheputforwardaproposalthatproportionalapproachwouldmeettheneedsofcoursedesigntoagreatextend.Inplanningsecondlanguageprogramstoday,theoryfrombothschoolsofthoughtsshouldbeapplied.Threemajorcontributionscomefromthemethodologists:-generalprinciplesgoverningclassroominteraction-accesstotheuseofauthenticsamplesoflanguagethroughworkindiscourseanalysis-awiderangeofsuitablemethodologyConstrainsinsyllabusdesignTwophasesincoursedesignReprise:criteriaforselectionSegmentingthecurriculumFrameworkforcoursedesignTwophasesincoursedesignThefirstphaseiswhatisthoughtofasclassicsyllabusdesign:thepreparationofsyllabusspecifications,comprisingagreaterorlessernumberofcomponents,astheoryandpracticedictate(seethediscussionofproficiencyinChapter2).Thisisthestageatwhichonemightfirstobtaindataonthelearnersaswellasonthephysicalconstraintspresentintheteachingsituation,and,second,askoneselfinhowmanycategoriesinformationisavailable–andifavailable,useful.Finally,onemightproduceadescriptionofthelanguageteachingsituation-itslearners,goals,andclassroomenvironment-aswellasoneofthetargetlanguagesituations,asfarastheseareknown.Thesecondphaseofthedesignprocessconsistsinexploitingtheinformationthuscollectedsothatcommunicationandinteractionmaytakeplaceintheclassroom.Herearesomeoftheproposedsolutions:Amodelinwhichfunctionalteachingisgraftedontoastructuralcore(Brumfit1980)Thevariable-focusmodel,whichinvolveschangingemphasisorfocusfromoneaspectoflanguagetoanotherastimeprogresses(Allen1980)Theproportionalmodel,inwhichtopicsorspecificnotionsareusedasaframeworkforagradualchangeofproportioninthetimedevotedtolanguageformontheonehandandcommunicativefunctionanddiscoursestructureontheother-orviceversa,dependingontheunderlyingtheoryofsecondlanguagelearning(Yalden1983)TheentirelyfunctionalmodelsusedinEnglishforscienceandtechnologyandEnglishforacademicpurposes,designedforlearnerswhohavetocarryoutpredictableroles.Theproceduralmodel(Johnson1982:135-44;Brumfit1984a;BerettaandDavies1985),inwhichtasksaredesignedtoproducegenerallanguagecompetence.Anothertask-basedmodel,inwhichtasksaredesignedtofosterstrategiesforlearningandcommunication(CandlinandBreen1979)Aprocess-orientedmodel,inwhich“apredesignedcontentsyllabuswouldbepubliclyanalysedandevaluatedbytheclassroomgroup,oranemergingcontentsyllabuswouldbedesigned(andsimilarlyevaluated)inanon-goingway”(Breen1984:55)Themodelinwhichsomeothersubjectmatterprovidesanonlinguisticsyllabus,asinshelteredcoursesandinimmersionprograms.ConstraintsinsyllabusdesignHowthenisonetocopewithdefiningcontentandsettingstandards,aswellaswithclassroominteraction?Asyllabusisaninstrumenttobeusedtocoordinatealltheseaspectsoflanguageteaching.Assuch,itshouldnotberigid,butflexible;notclosed,butopen-ended;andnotstatic,butsubjecttoconstantrevisionasaresultoffeedbackfromtheclassroom.Reprise:criteriaforselectionCriteriaappearfromoutsidetheteachingcontext,aswellasfromwithinit.Governmentpolicy----functionalmodellanguagepolicy-------proportionalorthevariable-focusmodel