大学英语跨文化交际总结

Chapter1cultureThenatureofculture:cultureislikeanicebergcultureisoursoftwarecultureislikethewaterafishswimsincultureisthegrammarofourbehaviorCharacteristicsofculture:cultureislearned(throughproverbs,folklore,art,massmedia)cultureisdynamic动态的cultureispervasive普遍的cultureisintegrated综合的cultureisadaptiveCulturalidentity文化认同culturalidentitydefinedformationofculturalidentity(unexamined,search,achievement)characteristicsofculturalidentityCultureswithinculturesubculture亚文化群Co-culture共文化Sub-group亚群体SummaryManyofustakeourcultureforgranted.Theonlytimewhenwemayeverthinkaboutitiswhenweleaveourowncountrytotravelabroadorwhenweencountersomeonewithaculturesodifferentfromoursthatwehavetoexamineourownbeliefs.Muchofwhatwethinkisthe"right"or"correct"waytoactordosomethingisactuallypartoftheknowledgethatwehavelearnedfromourculture.Cultureisalargeandinclusiveconcept.Thefirstdefinitionofculture,bytheEnglishanthropologistEdwardB.Tylor,involvesknowledge,belief,art,morals,law,customsandanyothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety.Althoughthisdefinitionhastriedtocovermoreaspectsthatmaydirecthumanbehavior,moreinclusivedefinitionscontinuetocomeintobeing.However,inthisbook,cultureisdefinedfromtheinterculturalcommunicationperspective:cultureisthedepositofknowledge,experience,beliefs,values,actions,attitudes,hierarchies,religions,notionsoftime,roles,spatialrelations,conceptsoftheuniverse,andartifactsacquiredbyagroupofpeopleinthecourseofgenerationsthroughindividualandgroupstriving.Comparedwiththedifferentideasonwhatcultureis,scholarsagreeonthecharacteristicsofculture.Generallyspeaking,cultureislearned,dynamic,pervasive,integratedandadaptive.Culturalidentityreferstoone'ssenseofbelongingtoaparticularcultureorethnicgroup.Peopleidentifywithbeingamemberofagroup.Beingamemberofagrouphelpstodefinewhoweare.Weareallmembersofgroupsofdifferentsizes.Oneofthelargestgroupsthatapersoncanbelongtoisaculture.Everyonebelongstoaculture.Othergroupsthatpeoplemaybeamemberofaresubcultures(alsocalledcoculture)andsubgroups.Subculturesexistwithindominantculture,andareoftenbasedoneconomicorsocialclass,ethnicity,race,orgeographicregion.Co-culturereferstogroupsorsocialcommunitiesexh如tingcommunicationcharacteristics,perceptions,values,beliefs,andpracticesthataresignificantlydifferentenoughtodistinguishthemfromtheothergroups,communities,andthedominantculture.Subgroupsusuallydonotinvolvethesamelargenumberofpeopleandarenotnecessarilythoughtofasaccumulatingvaluesandpatternsofbehaviorovergenerationsinthesamewayasculturesdo.Subgroupscanbeassmallasafewpeopleoraslargeasamajorreligion.Subgroupsprovidetheirmemberswithnormsthattellpeoplehowtobehaveandthink.Subgroupscanbeconsidered"deviant"formsofbehavior.Subgroupscanalsobedefinedas"non-exclusive"and"temporary"formsofbehavior.Chapter2interculturalcommunicationCommunicationcommunicationdefinedcomponents(组成)ofcommunication(sender/message/encoding/channel/receiver/decoding编码।/feedback/noise/context)Characteristicsofcommunicationcommunicationisdynamiccommunicationissystematiccommunicationissymbolic象征的communicationisirreversible不可逆的communicationistransactional相互作用的communicationisself-reflective自我反思的communicationiscontextual前后关系的CultureandcommunicationCultureandcommunication,althoughtwodifferentconcepts,aredirectlylinked.Theyaresoinextricablyboundthatsomeanthropologistsbelievethetermsarevirtuallysynonymous.Wheneverpeopleinteract,theycommunicate.Cultureislearned,actedout,transmitted,andpreservedthroughcommunication.Althoughtheconceptsofcommunicationandcultureworktogether,weseparatethemhereforpurposesofourdiscussion,webeginbyexamining"communication"becausetounderstandinterculturalinteraction,youmustfirstrecognizetheroleofcommunicationinthatprocess.Culturesinherentlycontaincommunicationsystems.Communicationandcultureareinseparable.Oneimplicationofthisinsightisthatculturesgeneratesymbols,rituals,customs,andformats.Touseasimpleexample,everyculturehasrulesforachievementandattainment.InWesternculture,thesymbolsincludedegrees,promotions,certificates,materialobjects,technology,andothersymbolsofmaterialwealth.However,nationalsinruralBotswanatakeprideintheprimarygroupandnotjustindividualattainment.Culturalmisunderstandingoccurswhenwefailtomatchtheappropriatesymbolsandgeneralcommunicationsystemtotheculture.Justwitnesstheawkwardnessofanexpatriatewhoattendsagatheringinahostculture,butfailstoweartheappropriateclothes.Onecannotescapethisinseparabilityofcultureandcommunication.Eachcultureencouragesaparticularcommunicationstyleexpectedwithinit.Thisimpliesnotonlyusingcorrectsymbols,butalsoapplyingtheappropriatecommunicationstylefortheoccasion.Communicationstylesincludemannerisms,phrases,rituals,andcommunicationcustomsappropriateforvarioussituationsinaculture.Forinstance,inSaudiArabiathecorrectinterpersonalcommunicationstyleuponmeetingone'shostisoftenlanguageloadedwithcomplimentsandthanks.Publiccriticismoffellowworkersinthiscultureisrare,forsuchamessagewouldappeardisrespectful.SomeWestAfricansexhibitafriendlyandwarminterpersonalcommunicationstyle.SomeAsiansaredescribedasconsciousofpropriety,ceremony,andrulesofrespectandhonor.SomeU.S.culturemembersappearinformalanduninhibitedSomeBritonsdisplayareservedmanner,preferringunderstatementandcontrolininterpersonalinteraction.Theseexamplesremindusoftheimportanceofunderstandinginterculturalcommunicationstyle.Areaslikeloudness,pitch,rate,andcertainstancesandgesturescharacterizecommunicationbehaviors.Aspecificcultureexpectsan"ideal"communicationstyle.Thecontrastsarestriking,suchaswhenanAmericanspeaksina"normal"conversationalvoice,a"quiet"ThainationalmaythinkthevoiceistooloudandinterprettheAmericantobeangry.Interculturalcommunicationinterculturalcommunicationdefinedformsofinterculturalcommunication(internationalcommunication/interracialcommunication跨人种/interethniccommunication跨种族/intraculturalcommunication同一文化内)SummaryCommunicationisanelementofculture.Itisbelievedthateveryculturalpatternandeverysingleactofsocialbehaviorinvolvescommunication.Whenababyisjustborn,heusuallycries.Hiscryingcommunicatessomething.Whenyougraduate,yourfriendsusuallysay"Congratulations!"toyou.Whenadriverseestheredlight,he/shewillstop.Allthesearecasesofcommunication.CommunicationisderivedfromtheLatinwordcommunicate,meaningtosharewithortomakecommon,asingivingtoanotherpartorshareofyourthoughts,hopes,andknowledge.However,likeculture,theterm"communication"hasbeendefinedfromdifferentperspectives.Infact,thewaythatpeopleviewcommunication-whatitis,howtodoit,andreasonsfordoingit-ispartoftheirculture.Westerncultureemphasizestheinstrumentalfunctionofcommunicationandthepriorconsiderationistoachievethesender'spersonalgoal,whileinEasternculture,inadditiontosendingandreceivingmessagessimultaneously,communicatorstaketheirrelationshipintoaccount.Theprocessofcommunicationhasninecomponents:sender/source,message,encoding,channel,receiver,decoding,feedback,noiseandcontext.Thesenderencodesamessage(informationthatthesenderwantstosharewithotherpeople)byputtingitintosymbols(usuallywordsornonverbalgestures)andthensendingitthroughachannel.Achannelcanbeprintedmediasuchasmagazinesandnewspapers;electronicmediasuchastelevision,radio,andtheInternet;orsoundstravelingthroughtheairwhentwopeoplespeakfacetoface.Sometimes,itisdifficultforthemessagetoreachthereceiver.Thedifficultyisdueto"noise".Whenreceiversgetthemessage,theymust"decode"ortrytounderstandit.Forexample,ifthesenderencodesamessageusingEnglish,thereceivermustusetheirknowledgeofEnglishlanguagetounderstandit.Often,thesenderpaysattentiontothefeedbackofthereceiver.Thecommunicationtakesplacewithinasettingorsituationcalledcontext.Anycommunicationprocessdemonstratesseveralcharacteristics,thatis,dynamic,systematic,symbolic,irreversible,transactional,self-reflectiveandcontextual.Whencommunicatingwithpeoplefromdifferentcultures,itisimportanttorememberthatcultureandcommunicationarestronglyconnected.Cultureisacodewelearnandshare,andlearningandsharingrequirecommunication.Interculturalcommunicationreferstocommunicationbetweenpeoplewhoseculturalperceptionandsymbolsystemaredistinctenoughtoalterthecommunicationevent.Interculturalcommunicationasatermwasfirstusedin1959byEdwardT.Hall—anAmericananthropologist.Interculturalcommunicationincludesinternationalcommunication,interracialcommunication,interethniccommurucat10nandintraculturalcommunication.Chapter4barriersEmotionalproblemsasbarriersanxietyanduncertainty(definition/strategiestoovercome)assumingsimilarityinsteadofdifference假想相同点多于不同点Attitudinalproblemsasbarriersethnocentrism种族或民族中心主义(defined/variousforms)stereotyping(definition/categories)prejudiceracismreasonsforthepersistenceofethnocentrism,stereotyping,prejudiceandracism(socialization社交化/socialbenefits/economicbenefits/psychologicalbenefits)Translationproblemsaslanguagebarrierslackofvocabularyequivalencelackofidiomaticequivalencelackofgrammatical-syntacticalequivalencelackofexperientialequivalence经验lackofconceptualequivalence概念SummaryThereareseveralbarrierstointerculturalcommunication—anxietyanduncertainty,assumingsimilarityinsteadofdifference,ethnocentrism,stereotyping,prejudice,racismandtranslationproblems.Anxietyanduncertainty,aswellasassumingsimilarityinsteadofdifferencebelongtotheemotionalproblems.Anxietyoccursbecauseofnotknowingwhatoneisexpectedtodo,andfocusingonthatfeelingandnotbeingtotallypresentinthecommunicationtransaction.Anxietymayalsoaffectyourabilitytocommunicateyourideastoothers,foryoupaytoomuchattentiontoyouruncomfortablefeelings.Uncertaintyreferstoourcognitiveinabilitytoexplainourownorother'sfeelingsandbehaviorsininteractionsbecauseofanambiguoussituationthatevokesanxiety.Assumingsimilarityinsteadofdifferenceisanaturalthingtodoifyoudonothaveanyinformationaboutaculture.Itreferstotheideathatpeoplecomingfromanotherculturearemoresimilartoyouthantheyactuallyareorthatanotherperson'ssituationismoresimilartoyoursthanitinfactis.AssumingthatacultureissimilartoyourowncancauseyoutoignoreimportantdifferencesThisassumptionalwaysleadstodisruptedcommunicationandevenconflict.Ethnocentrism,stereotyping,prejudiceandracismbelongtotheattitudinalproblemsEthnocentrismisnegativelyjudginganotherculturebyyourownculture'sstandards.Tomakeethnocentricjudgmentsistobelievethatthewaysofyourownculturearebetterthanthoseofothers.Stereotypingisusedtorefertonegativeorpositivejudgmentsmadeaboutindividualsbasedonanyobservableorbelievedgroupmembership.Itassumesthatapersonhascertainqualities(goodorbad)justbecausethepersonisamemberofaspecificgroup.Prejudicereferstotheirrationaldislike,suspicionorhatredofaparticulargroup,race,religion,orsexualorientation.Prejudicedattitudescantakemanyforms.Aspecifickindofprejudice,racismreferstoanypolicy,practice,belief,orattitudethatattributescharacteristicsorstatustoindividualsbasedontheirrace.Racisminvolvesnotonlyprejudice,butalsotheexerciseofpoweroverindividualsbasedontheirrace.Ethnocentrism,stereotyping,prejudice,racismcontinuetoexistbecauseofsocializationandtheapparentsocial,economic,andpsychologicalbenefitsthatcomefromit.Duetolanguagedifferencesandculturaldifferences,translationcanbecomeabarriertointerculturalcommunication.Fiveelementsthattypicallycauseproblemsintranslationarethelackofequivalencesinvocabulary,idioms,grammarandsyntax,experiences,andconcepts.Chapter5verbalcommunicationSignificanceofverbalcommunication"Verbal"means"consistingofwords".Language,spokenorwritten,isameansofverbalcommunication.Therefore,verbalinterculturalcommunicationhappenswhenpeoplefromdifferentculturalbackgroundscommunicatewitheachotherbyusinglanguage.LanguageandculturelanguageasareflectionoftheenvironmentlanguageasareflectionofvaluesthemeaningofwordsVerbalcommunicationstylesdirectandindirectstylesself-enhancementandself-effacementstyles宣扬和谦逊elaborate,exactingandsuccinctstyles详尽的，确切的，简洁的personalandcontextualstyles不同的称呼方式根据场合和地位instrumentalandaffectivestyles理性与感性Languagediversitydialectsandsociolects方言和社会方言pidginandlinguafranca洋泾浜语（汉语中夹杂外语），混合语（母语不互通）tabooandeuphemism禁用语委婉语jargon行话CulturalinfluenceonwrittencommunicationdirectplanindirectplanSummaryVerbalinterculturalcommunicationhappenswhenpeoplefromdifferentculturalbackgroundscommunicatewitheachotherbyusinglanguage.Itisagreedthatlanguagehelpsincommunicatingwithpeoplefromdifferentbackgrounds.However,peoplemaybelessawarethatculturalliteracyisnecessaryinordertounderstandthelanguagebeingused.Wordsinthemselvesdonotcarrythemeaning.Themeaningcomesoutofthecontext.Althoughpeopleusethedictionarytoexplainonelanguagewithanotherlanguage,wordsofdifferentlanguagesdon'tmeanthesamethingbecauseoftheculturalinfluenceonwordmeaning.Therearemainlyfiveverbalcommunicationstylesintroducedinthischapter:direct/indirect;self-enhancement/self-effacement;elaborate/exacting/succinct;personal/contextual;andinstrumental/affective.Languageisaculturalphenomenonwhichisusedtoexpressdifferentusesandtocommunicatedifferentmeanings.Languagevariesaccordingtothecommunicativeusesbutalsoaccordingtotheusers.Infact,usersofthesamelanguageinasenseallspeakdifferentlyandthekindoflanguageeachofthemchoosestouseisinpartdeterminedbytheirculturalbackground.Inshort,somelanguagevariationsresultfromthelanguageuser,thatis,hisorhergeographicalorigin(dialect),orhisorhersocialcondition(sociolect).However,somelanguagevariationsresultfromthecircumstancesofcommunication,suchaspidgin,LinguaFranca,jargon,tabooandeuphemism.Dialectreferstogeographicalvariation,whilesociolectreferstovariationintermsofsocialclassorstyle.Pidginreferstoamixedlanguagethatisusedfortradingpurposes,whileLinguaFrancareferstoaspecificlanguagethatisusedasaninternationalmeansofcommunication.Tabooreferstoexpressionsthatareconsideredimpolite,whileeuphemismreferstopoliteexpressionsusedtosoftentheoffensiveanddisturbinglanguage.Jargonreferstoaspecialortechnicalvocabularythatisdevelopedforprofessionalpurposeswithinprofessionalgroupslikemedicineorlaw.Furthermore,verbalcommunicationinvolvesbothoralandwrittenforms.Writtencommunicationisespeciallyimportantininterculturalbusinesscommunication.Asthemodemtechnologicalrenovation(e-mailandecommerce)callsforthewrittencommunicationinbusiness,businessmenshouldbemoreconsciousaboutthewrittencommunicationbecausemistakesmadeinwrittenformaremoreseriousandpermanent.Culturalpatternsinfluencenotonlyoralcommunicationbutalsowrittencommunication.Culturalimpactondiscoursepatternsistobeclassifiedintotwocategories:directplanandindirectplan.Indirectplans,clarityandconcisenessareessentialtoasuccessfulbusinesswritingstyle.Theindirectplanhasotherprioritiesthanthequickdeliveryofideas,suchasnurturingarelationshipordevelopingsomeothercontextforthemessage.Directplanisfavoredbyresults-orientedculturesIndirectplanisfavoredbyrelationship-orientedculture.Chapter6nonverbalSignificanceofnonverbalcommunicationnonverbalbehavioraccountsformuchofthemeaningwegetfromconversations.nonverbalbehaviorissignificantbecauseitspontaneously<Dreflectsthesubconsciousness.Nonverbalcommunicationissignificantisthatwecannotavoidcommunicating.Definitionandfunctionsofnonverbalcommunicationdefinitionofnonverbalcommunicationfunctionsofnonverbalcommunication（repeating重复/complementing补充/substituting代替/regulating/contradicting反对）Paralanguageandsilenceparalanguage副语言（语音语调）silenceTimeandspacechronemics时间行为学的proxemics人际距离学（fixedfeaturesofspace/semifixedfeaturesofspace/personalspace包括四种情况下的不同距离）Othercategoriesofnonverbalcommunicationoculesics目光语olfactics嗅觉haptics触觉kinesics人体动作学（gestures/posture/face3xpressions/chromati色彩/attire打扮）SummaryWhenwelearntocommunicate,welearnnotonlylanguagebutalsovariouswaysofcommunicating.Communicatorsusebothverbalandnonverbalcodestocommunicate,listenersexpecttoreceivebothkindsofmessagesduringaconversation.Ifaspeakerusesnonverbalcodespoorlyorinappropriately,alistenermayconsiderthepersonapoorspeaker.However,misunderstandingsmayoccurwhenthespeakersandlistenersarefromdifferentculturesanddonotsharethesamenonverbalcodes.Inbrief,themessagessentwithoutusingwordsarecallednonverbalcommunication.Nonverbalcommunicationinvolvesthosenonverbalstimuliinacommunicationsettingthataregeneratedbythesenderandhisorheruseoftheenvironment—thesehavepotentialmessagevalueforboththesenderandreceiver.Nonverbalcommunicationcodesorsymbolsorstimuliinacommunicatingsettingcanbedividedintodifferentcategories:paralanguage,silence,proxemics,chronemics,oculesics,olfactics,haptics,kinesics,chromaticsandattire.ParalanguageisthesetofaudiblesoundsthataccompanyorallanguagetoaugmentitsmeaningWhentheGermanpoetKlopstockwrote"Thetonesofhumanvoicesaremightierthanstringsorbrasstomovethesoul",hemeantthatsoundswegenerateoftencommunicatemorethanthewordsthattheyproduce.Wehavetheexperienceofwatchingforeignmovies:ifwedon'tknowthelanguagetheyspeakandtherearenosubtitles,wecanstillinferwhenperformersareexpressinganger,sorrow,joy,oranyotheremotions.Silencecuesaffectinterpersonalcommunicationbyprovidinganintervalinanongoinginteractionduringwhichtheparticipantshavetimetothink,checkorsuppressanemotion,encodealengthyresponse,orinaugurateanotherlineofthought.Chronemicsisthestudyofhowpeopleperceiveandusetime.Peoplehavedifferentattitudestowardpunctualitybecausetheyhavedifferenttimeorientations.Peoplefrommonochronicculturesemphasizeschedules,whilepeoplefrompolychronicculturesstressinvolvementofpeopleandthecompletionoftasksasopposedtoastrictadherencetoschedules.Proxemicsreferstothestudyofspatialrelations.Culturesvaryinsuchthingsashowlivingspaceisarrangedandthedistancebetweenpeopleininteraction.Oculesicsreferstothestudyofcommunicationssentbytheeyes.Eyesplayacentralroleinimpressionmanagement.Whenpeoplesaythateyestalk,theymeanthateyesconveymessages.Althougheyecontactisaveryimportantwayofcommunication,directeye-to-eyecontactisnotacustomthroughouttheworld.Olfacticsreferstothestudyofcommunicationviasmell.Americansfeeluncomfortablewithnaturalsmells,sotheyspendmillionsofdollarstomakethemselvessmell"good".However,manyculturesregardnaturalsmellsasnormal.Most心absperceiveaperson'ssmellasanextensionoftheperson.Hapticsortouchreferstocommunicationthroughtheuseofbodilycontact.Therearedifferentbehavioralpatternsregardingtouch.Welearntherules,aswemovefrominfancyintochildhood.Thewrongbehavioroftouchinginstrangeculturescancreateuncertaintyandevenillfeeling.Kinesicsreferstogestures,facialexpressions,eyecontact,bodyposition,bodymovement,andformsofgreetingandtheirrelationstocommunication.Althoughanypartofthebodycanbeusedforcommunicatingnonverbally,face,hands,andarmsaretheprimary灼nesicchannelsthroughwhichnonverbalmessagesaresent.Chromaticsreferstothestudyofcolorinreferencetopeople'sperceptions,behaviors,andimpressionsofothers.Thesamecolormaybeinterpreteddifferentlyindifferentcultures.Thewrongcolorofyourclothesmaymakepeopledislikeyou,orevenhateyou.Itisquiteimportanttowatchwhatcolorisappropriateincertainsettings,whenyouareinaforeigncountryAttirereferstoclothingandphysicalappearance.Italsoservesasnonverbalsymbols.Weoftenidentifyaperson'sculturebyhisorherphysicalappearanceanddress.Communicationwithothersisoftenperceivedbyvisualobservationsofhisorherphysicalappearance.Chapter7culturalpatternsDefiningculturalpatternswaysofthinkingwaysofactingComponentsofculturalpatterns组成beliefs信仰values价值观norms行为准则socialpractices社会行为Culturetheoryhigh-contextculture高语境文化（很多信息在环境中是可见的，没有必要用语言过多描述）low-contextculture（语言作为主要传递信息的方式）problemsposed(高语境的会嫌弃低语境的人说的太多，给予了太多不需要的信息)Valueorientationhumannatureorientationperson-natureorientation(mastery-over-natureview/harmony-with-natureview/subjugation-to-natureview)timeorientation(value-past/value-present/value-future)activityorientation(value-doing/value-being/value-being-in-becoming)relationalorientationCulturalvariabilityindividualismandcollectivism独立的集中的uncertaintyavoidancepowerdistancemasculinityandfemininity男权主义女权主义SummaryAlthoughindividuals,eveninthesameculture,tendtohavedifferentvaluepatterns,thereareoverallvaluesshapedbyone'sculturewhicharesharedbythemembersofthegroup.Understandingaculture'svaluepatternisofgreatsignificanceintermsofunderstandingtheirbehaviorsSharedbeliefs,values,norms,andsocialpracticesthatarestableovertimeandthatleadtoroughlysimilarbehaviorsacrosssimilarsituationsareknownasculturalpatterns.Abeliefisanideathatpeopleassumetobetrueabouttheworld.Valuesinvolvewhatacultureregardsasgoodorbad,rightorwrong,fairorunfair,justorunjust,beautifulorugly,cleanordirty,valuableorworthless,appropriateorinappropriate,andkindorcruel.Normsarethesociallysharedexpectationsofappropriatebehaviors.Socialpracticesarethepredictablebehaviorpatternsthatmembersofaculturetypicallyfollow.Contextisdefinedastheinformationthatsurroundsanevent;itisinextricablyboundupwiththemeaningoftheevent.EdwardT.Hallintroducedthehighcontextcommunicationandlowcontextcommunication.Ahighcontext(HC)communicationormessageisoneinwhichmostoftheinformationisalreadyintheperson,whileverylittleisinthecoded,explicitlytransmittedpartofthemessage.Alowcontext(LC)communicationisjusttheopposite;i.e.,themassoftheinformationisvestedintheexplicitcode.Itisverbalized.KluckhohnandStrodtbeck'sValueOrientationsarebasedon:humannature,person-natureinterface,time,activityandhumanrelationships.Thesefiveaspectsdefinegroupculturesaccordingtodifferentcategories:Asforhuman-natureorientation,culturescouldbedividedintosixgroups:(1)Humansareevilbutchangeable;(2)Humansareevilandunchangeable;(3)Humansareneutralwithrespecttogoodandevil;(4)Humansareamixtureofgoodandevil;(5)Humansaregoodbutchangeable;(6)Humansaregoodandunchangeable.Theperson-natureorientationconsistsofthreecategories:(1)Masteryovernature;(2)Harmonywithnature;(3)Subjugationtonature.Asfarastimeorientationisconcerned,culturesmaybelongto(1)Thepastorientation;(2)Thepresentorientation;(3)Thefutureorientation.Theactivityorientationinvolvesthreegroups:(1)Thed,omgonentat10n;(2)Thebeingorientation;(3)Thebeing-in-becomingorientation.GeertHofstedehasidentifiedfourvaluedimensionsthathaveasignificantimpactonbehaviorinallcultures.Thesedimensionsareindividualismandcollectivism,uncertaintyavoidance,powerdistance,andmasculinityandfemininity.Individualisticculturesgivemoreimportancetoindividuals'needswhentheydothingssuchassettinggoals.Collectivismischaracterizedbyarigidsocialframeworkthatdistinguishesbetweenin-groupsandout-groups.Uncertaintyavoidancedealswiththedegreetowhichmembersofaculturetrytoavoiduncertainty.Powerdistanceis"theextenttowhichthelesspowerfulmembersofinstitutionsandorganizationsacceptthatpowerisdistributedunequally".Thatistosay,howequalorunequal.thepeopleinaparticularculturethinkpeopleshouldbe.Themajordifferentiationbetweenmasculineandfeminineculturesishowgenderrolesaredistributedincultures.Thosedimensionsoffercertainmeasurementsforresearcherstostudyaspecificcultureordocomparativeresearchworkfromaninterculturalperspective.Chapter8culturalinfluenceoncontextsThebusinesscontextcultureinfluenceonbusinesscontextmanagement不同国家方式不同businessetiquettenorms商务礼仪(appointmentseeking/thedateforbusiness/greetingbehavior/giftgiving)Theeducationalcontextcultureinfluenceontheeducationalcontextrolebehaviorsofstudentsandteachersclassroomparticipationturntaking说话的方式时间和行为ThehealthcarecontextcultureinfluenceonthehealthcarecontextfamilyandgenderrolesinthehealthcarecontextconversationalstructuresandlanguageSummaryMeaningincommunicationisbasicallydecidedbycontext.Communicationisnotdevoidofexternalinfluence:allhumaninteractionisinfluencedtosomedegreebythesocial,physical,andculturalsettingsinwhichitoccurs.Thisisknownasthecommunicationcontext.Contextmayconsistofthesocial,political,andhistoricalstructuresinwhichthecommunicat