词汇学课本练习答案

精选优质文档倾情为你奉上精选优质文档倾情为你奉上专心专注专业专心专注专业精选优质文档倾情为你奉上专心专注专业Unit11.主观题2.HowdidtheNormanConquestandtheRenaissanceinfluencetheEnglishvocabulary?Thetransitionalperiod（转型时期）fromOldEnglishtoModernEnglishisknownasMiddleEnglish(ME11001500),whichischaracterizedbythestronginfluenceofFrenchfollowingtheNormanConquestin1066,Frenchwasusedforallstateaffairsandformostsocialandculturematters,whichinfluencedEnglishindailylife.TheEnglishlanguagefrom1500tothepresentiscalledModernEnglish.IntheearlystageofthisperiodtheRenaissance（文艺复兴）broughtgreatchangetothevocabulary.Therenewed（复兴的）studyofGreekintheRenaissancenotonlyledtotheborrowingofGreekwordsindirectlythroughthemedium（媒介）ofLatin,butalsoledtotheintroductionofsomeGreekwordsdirectlyintoEnglishvocabulary.Greekborrowingsweremostlyliterary,technicalandscientificwords,(page4~5)3.Enumeratethecausesfortherapidgrowthofneologisms（新词，旧词新意，新词的创造者/使用者）afterWorldWarⅡ.Givefourexamplesforeachcause.①markedprogressofscienceandtechnology.Example:toblastoff(炸掉，炸毁),tocountdown,capsule,launchingpad②socio-economic（社会经济）,politicalandculturalchanges.Example:roller-hockey,surfriding,skydiving（跳伞运动）,disignatedhitter③theinfluencefromotherculturesandlanguages（page6~7）Example:cosmonaut,discotheque（小舞厅，迪斯科舞厅）,ombudsman（调查官员舞弊情况的政府官员）,apartheid（种族隔离）.4.Whatarethefundamentalfeaturesofthebasicwordstock（词库）oftheEnglishvocabulary?(1).Nationalcharacter(全民通用性)：Wordsofthebasicwordstockbelongtothepeopleasawhole,nottoalimitedgroup.(2).Stability（稳定性）:Aswordsinthebasicwordstockdenotethecommonestthingsnecessarytolife,theyarelikelytoremainunchanged.However,acertainnumberofOldEnglishwordshavedroppedoutofthebasicwordstock,whilenewwordshavejoinedtherankofbasicwords,followingsocialandtechnologicalchanges.(3).Word-formingability(构词)：Basicwordsareveryactiveinformingnewwords.(4).Abilitytoformcollocations（搭配能力）：Basicwordscombinereadilywithotherwordstoformhabitualexpressionsandphrases.Sincethegreatmajorityofthebasicwordstockarenativewords,theyarenaturallytheonesusedmostfrequentlyineverydayspeechandwriting.(Page10paragraph4,5,7,8andPage11paragraph2)5.WhatarethecharacteristicsoftheEnglishvocabularyasaresultofitshistoricaldevelopment?ThehistoricaldevelopmentofEnglishlanguageshowsthatEnglishisaheavyborrower;ithasadoptedwordsfromalmosteveryknownlanguage,especiallyfromLatin,FrenchandGreek.（page18.）6.WhydowesaythatnativewordsarethecoreoftheEnglishvocabulary?First,becausethenativewordsformthegreatmajorityofthebasicwordstockoftheEnglishlanguage.Andthebasicwordstockisthefoundationofthevocabularyaccumulatedoveranumberofepochs.Second,theymakeupthemostfamiliar,mostusefulpartoftheEnglishvocabulary.SowesaythatnativewordsarethecoreoftheEnglishvocabularyforitsimportance.（Page10paragraph2,andPage19paragraph2）7.Whatdowemeanbyliteraryandcommonwords?(1)Commonorpopularwordsarewordsconnectedwiththeordinarythingsoractivitiesnecessarytoeverydaylife.ThegreatmajorityofEnglishwordsarecommonwords.Thecoreofthecommonwordsisthebasicwordstock.Theyarestylistically(在文体上)neutral,andhencetheyareappropriateinbothformalandinformalwritingandspeech.(Page11paragraph6)(2)Literarywordsarechieflyusedinwriting,especiallyinbookswritteninamoreelevated（升高的，提高的，崇高的）style,inofficialdocuments,orinformalspeeches.Theyarecomparativelyseldomusedinordinaryconversation.(Page12paragraph1)Chapter2Q1:Explainthefollowingtermsandprovideexample:Morphemic形位Allomorph形位变体freeandboundmorphemichybrid混合词Morphemic:thesmallestmeaningfullinguisticunitoflanguage,notdivisibleoranalyzableintosmallerforms.Example:nation(page21,paragraph2,line1)Allomorph:anyofthevariantformsofamorphemicasconditionedbypositionoradjoiningsounds.Example:books,pigs.(page22,paragraph3,line4)Freemorphemic:onethatcanbeutteredalonewithmeaning.Example:man，read，faith(page23,paragraph2,line1To2)Boundmorphemic:cannotstandbyitselfasacompleteutterance表达;itmustappearwithatleastoneothermorphemic.Example:unkind(page23,paragraph2,line4)Hybrid:awordmadeupofelementsformtwoormoredifferentlanguage.Example:goddess,rewrite.(page27,paragraph2,line4)Q2.Whatarethedifferencesbetweeninflectionalandderivationalaffixes?P26页第4段开头P29页第4自然段末尾Inflectionalaffixes（屈折词缀）arerelatedtogrammaronly.Derivationalaffixes（派生词缀）aresubdividedintoprefixesandsuffixes,whicharerelatedtotheformationofnewwords.Roots,prefixes前缀andsuffixes后缀.arethebuildingblockswithwhichwordsareformed.Thenumberofderivationalaffixes,althoughlimited,ismuchlargerthanthatofinflectionalaffixes.Q3:Inwhattwowaysarederivationalaffixes派生词缀classified?p26Derivationalaffixesareclassifiedinprefixes前缀andsuffixes后缀.Q4:Howarewordsclassifiedonthemorphemic（语素的）level?P29paragraph5Onthemorphemiclevel,wordscanbeclassifiedintosimple,complexandcompoundwords（复合词）.ChapterIIIⅠExplain1、(p32)Word-formationrules:Therulesofword-formationdefinethescopeandmethodswherebyspeakersofalanguagemaycreatenewwords2、Root,stemandbase.Analyzetheworddenationalizedintoroot,baseandstem. Denationalized①Root：nation②stem：denationalize③base：nationalizedⅡCompounding1、Whataretherelativecriteriaofacompound?(p35-p36)①Orthographiccriterion②Phonologicalcriterion③SemanticcriterionⅢDerivation1、Whatisderivation?(p42-p43)Derivationisaword-formationprocessbywhichnewwordsarecreatedbyaddingaprefix,orsuffix,orbothtoanalreadyexistingword.2、Whatisthedifferencebetweenprefixationandsuffixation?Prefixationistheadditionofaprefixtothebase.Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthebase,buttheydonotgenerallyalteritsword-class.Everyprefixhasaspecificmeaningofitsown;prefixesarethereforeclassifiedaccordingtotheirmeanings.Suffixationreferstotheadditionofasuffixtothebase.Suffixesfrequentlyaltertheword-classofthebase.Therefore,suffixesareclassifiedaccordingtotheclassofwordtheyformintonoun-formingsuffixes,verb-formingsuffixes,etc(p66)3、Howarethemajorlivingprefixesclassified?Giveafewexamplestoillustrateeachkind.（P44）Themajorlivingprefixesareclassifiedintothefollowingeightcategoriesbytheirmeaning:1)negativeprefixes(un-,non-,in-,dis-,a-).eg,unhappy,nonhero,injustice,disadvantage,atypical）2)reversativeorprivativeprefixes（un-,de-,dis-）.eg,unwrap,decentralize,disunite3)prejorativeprefixes(mis-,mal-,pseudo-).eg.mistrust,maltreat,pseudo-science4)prefixesofdegreeorsize(arch-,super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini-)eg,archbishop，supercurrenthyperactive,outlive,ultra-conservative5)prefixesofattitude(co-,counter-,antic-,pro-)eg,cooperation,anti-nuclear,pro-student,counterpart6)locativeprefixes(super-,sub-,inter-,trans-)eg.Subarctic,superacid,transcode7)prefixesoftimeandorder(fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re-)forehead,reconsider,prereading,post-war8)numberprefixes(uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,multi-/poly-)multi-purpose,monocle,bi-media4、Howcanyouformdeverbalnouns,denominalnouns,deadjectiveverbs,anddenominaladjectivesbysuffixation?（P50）answer：1）deverbalnounsuffixes:verb-nounsuffixes,suchas–erinwriter,-eeinemployee,-ationinexploitationand–mentindevelopment.2)denominalnounsuffixes:noun–nounsuffixes,suchas–hoodinboyhood,-shipinscholarship,-letinbooklet,and–dominstardom.3)deadjectiveverbsuffixes:adjective–verbsuffixes,suchas–ifyinsimplify,-izeinmodernize,and–eninquicken4)denominaladjectivesuffixes:noun–adjectivesuffixes,suchas–fullinhelpful,-lessinlimitless,-yinsilkyand–ishinfoolish.5、Givethemeaningofthefollowingwordsandanalyzethestructureofeachword:（P51）answer:1)adrivermeansapersonwhodrives2)alightermeansamachineusedforlightering3)agardenermeansapersonwhogarden4)aNewYorkermeansapersonfromNewYork5)avillagermeansinhabitantofvillage6)adineris‘adiningcarriageonatrain’7)aliferis‘slang.Apersonsentencedtoimprisonmentforlife8)adressermeansAnalyse:asfor1、2、3,affixedtoaverb,thesuffixformsagentnounswiththemeaningof‘onewhoperformsanaction’asfor4、5，thisaffixmayalsobejoinedtothemeansofcities,countries,andtootherplacenames.asfor6、7、8colloquialandslangy.ⅣConversion1、whatisthedifferencebetweenconversion（此类转化法）andsuffixation（加后缀）?(P55介绍conversion的第一段)：Conversionisaword-formationprocesswherebyawordofacertainword-classisshiftedintoawordofanotherword-classwithouttheadditionofanaffix.Itisalsocalledzero-derivation.e.g.bottle(n.)bottle(v.),buy(v.)buy(n.),tutor(n.)tutor(v.)（例子也可以举其他的如attack）(P49介绍Suffixation的第一段)：Suffixation:It'stheformationofanewwordbyaddingasuffixoracombiningformtothebase,andusuallychangingtheword-classofthebase.e.g.boyn.+-ish--boyishadj.boyn.+hood--boyhoodn.2、Inaconversionpair,howcanyoudeterminewhichofthetwoisthebaseandwhichthederivedword(派生词)?（P56中间三个例子）•Thebaseisderivationbyzerosuffix.Spy–adeverbalnounwithoutsuffix,meaningonewhospies.•ThederivedwordisderivationbysuffixWirteradeverbalnounwith"-er"suffix，meaningonewhowrites3、Illustratetheaxiom（原理）,"Theactualgrammaticalclassificationofanywordispendentuponitsuse."（P57最后一段）Noticehowtheword-classofroundvariesinaccordancewithitsuseinthefollowingsentence:i.e.Thesecondround(n)（回合）wasexciting.Anyround(adj)（圆的）platewilldo.Somedriversround(v)（绕行）conerstoorapidly.Thesoundgoesroundandround(phrase).(旋转)Theaboveexamplestellusaveryimportantfact:becausewordorder（词序）ismorefixedinModernEnglishthaneverbefore,thefunctionshiftswithinsentencestructuresarepossiblewithoutcausinganyconfusioninintelligibility(可懂度，可理解性).『这一段可不要』4、Whyistheconversionfromnountoverbthemostproductiveprocessofconversion?(58—59页)FirstincontemporaryEnglish,thereisatendencyof“apreponderanceofnounsaververb”.Second,thereareonlyafewverb-formingaffixesinEnglish.Theyarebe-,en-,-ify,-izeand–en.5、Whatarethemajorsemantictypesundernountoverbconversion?（a）“toputin/onN”（b）“togiveN,toprovideN”（c）“todepriveofN;ortoremovetheobjectdenotedbythenounfromsomething”（d）“To….withN”（e）“To｛be/actas｝Nwithrespectto…”(1)verbsfromhumannouns(2)verbsfromanimalnouns(3)verbsfrominanimatenouns（f）“To｛make/change｝…intoN”（g）“To｛send/go｝byN”(1)mail(2)bicycle（h）“TospendtheperiodoftimedenotedbyN”6、Whyisthepooranexampleofpartialconversion?（62页）Itisusedasnounwhenprecededbythedefinitearticle;yettheconvertednountakesononlysomeofthefeaturesofthenoun;i.e.Itdoesnottakepluralandgenitiveinflection,norcanitbeprecededbydeterminerslikea,this,my,etc.8、Pickouttheconvertedwordsinthesentencesbelowandstate(1)theword-classoftheconvertedwordsandtheirmeanings;(2)towhatword-classthebaseofeachoftheconvertedwordsbelongs:（1）TheyaregoingtosummerinGuilin.theconvertedword:summer（v.）theword-classofit:conversionmeaning:避暑；过夏天thebaseofthewordoftheword-classbelongs:summer(n.)(2)Theyhurrahedhiswonderfulperformance.theconvertedword:hurrah(v.)theword-classofit:conversionmeaning:欢呼，叫好，为喝彩thebaseofthewordoftheword-classbelongs:hurrah(n.)(3)Youhavetoroundyourlipsinordertomakethesound/u:/.theconvertedword:round(v.)theword-classofit:conversionmeaning:弄圆，使成圆形thebaseofthewordoftheword-classbelongs:round(n.)(4)Theyaregreatsillies.theconvertedword:silly(n.)theword-classofit:conversionmeaning:傻瓜thebaseofthewordoftheword-classbelongs:silly(adj.)(5)Shedustedthefurnitureeverymorning.theconvertedword:dust(v.)theword-classofit:conversionmeaning:拂去灰尘thebaseofthewordoftheword-classbelongs:dust(n.)(6)Itisagoodbuy.theconvertedword:buy(n.)theword-classofit:conversionmeaning:购买，买卖；所购的物品thebaseofthewordoftheword-classbelongs:buy(v.)Chapter41.Initialism:Initialismisatypeofshortening,usingthefirstlettersofwordstoformapropername,atechnicalterm,oraphrase；aninitialismispronouncedletterbyletter.2.Acronym:Acronymsarewordsformedfromtheinitiallettersofthenameofanorganizationorascientificterm,etc.3.Blend:Blendingisaprocessofword-formationinwhichanewwordisformedbycombiningthemeaningsandsoundsoftwowords,oneofwhichisnotinitsfullformorbothofwhicharenotintheirfullforms.4.Frontandbackclipping:Theprocessofclippinginvolvesthedeletionofoneormoresyllablesfromaword(usuallyanoun),whichisalsoavailableinitsfullform.Backclippingmayoccurattheendoftheword.Thisisthemostcommontypeofclipping.Frontclippingoccursatthebeginningoftheword.5.back-formation:Back-formationisatermusedtorefertoatypeofword-formationbywhichashorterwordiscoinedbythedeletionofasupposedaffixfromalongerformalreadypresentinthelanguage.6.Reduplication:Reduplicationisaminortypeofword-formationbywhichacompoundwordiscreatedbytherepetition(1)ofonewordlikego-go;(2)oftwoalmostidenticalwordswithachangeinthevowel’ssuchasping-pong;(3)oftwoalmostidenticalwordswithachangeintheinitialconsonants,asinteenyweeny.ChapterV1.Howarethesoundandmeaningofmostwordsrelated?Giveexamplestoillustrateyourpoint.(P93)MostEnglishwordsareconventional（常规的）,arbitrarysymbols;consequently,thereisnointrinsic（内在的，固有的）relationbetweenthesound-symbolanditssense.e.g.house(English)maison(French)fangzi(Chinese)dom(Russian)casa(Spanish)Amoreconvincingevidenceoftheconventionalandarbitrarynatureoftheconnectionbetweensound-symbol（声音符号）andmeaningcanalsobeillustratedbyasetofhomophones(同音异义词):write,right,andrite(仪式，礼拜式）.Theyarepronouncedthesamebutconveydifferentmeanings.2.Whatdowemeanbyphoneticmotivation?（P94和PPT）Wordsmotivatedphoneticallyarecalledechoicwords（拟声词）oronomatopoeicwords,whosepronunciationsuggeststhemeaning.Theyshowacloserelationofnametosensewhereasnon-echoicwordsdon’tshowanysuchrelationship.Onomatopoeicwords（拟声词）canbedividedintoprimaryOnomatopoeia（直接拟声）andsecondaryOnomatopoeia（间接拟声）.PrimaryOnomatopoeiameanstheimitationofsoundbysound.SecondaryOnomatopoeiameansthatcertainsoundsandsound-sequencesareassociatedwithcertainsensesinanexpressiverelationship.3.Quoteashortpoemorpassagethatshowstheliteraryeffectofonomatopoeicwords.(P94倒数第二行)“Theicewashere,theicewasthere,Theicewasallaround;Itcrackedandgrowled,androaredandhowled,Likenoisesinaswound!”5.Whatismeantbygrammaticalmeaning?（P96~97）Grammaticalmeaning(词法意义)consistsofword-class（词类）andinflectionalparadigm（词形变化）。Itdescribestheword’slexicalmeaningandalsogiveswhatistraditionallyknownasthepartofspeechoftheword,whichmodernlinguistscalltheword-class.Thesetofgrammaticalformsofawordiscalleditsparadigm.Ontheotherhandthegrammaticalmeaningisthesameinidenticalsetsofindividualformsofdifferentwords.6.Whatisthedifferentbetweengrammaticalmeaningandlexicalmeaning?(P97第3段)First,thelexicalmeaning(词汇意义)ofawordisthesameinallformsofoneandthesamewordwhilethegrammaticalmeaning（语法意义）variesfrom,oneword-formtoanother.Second,everywordhasadifferentlexicalmeaningwhereasthegrammaticalmeaningisthesameintheidenticalsetsofindividualformsofdifferentwords.7．Whyshouldwegiveprimaryimportancetoconceptual/denotativemeaning（概念/外延意义）ofwords?(P97第4段)Denotativemeaningisthecentralfactorinlinguisticcommunication.Oneofthefunctionsofwordsistodesignateordescribesomething,suchasanobject,apropertyoraprocess.Usersofalanguagecannottalkabouttheirknowledgeofaphysicalobjectoranaturalphenomenon,unlessthisknowledgeisexpressedinwordswhichhavethesamemeaningforallspeakersofagivencommunity.Thisisthedenotativemeaningofaword.Denotativemeaningisusedwhentheemphasisisontherelationshipbetweenlanguage,ontheonehand,andthethings,events,orprocesses,whichareexternaltothespeakerandhislanguage,ontheother.Thedenotativemeaningofawordisitsdefinitiongiveninadictionary.It’sthataspectoflexicalmeaningwhichmakescommunicationpossible.8.Givethreetofivewordswhichhaveconnotations（内涵）varyingfromonespeechcommunitytoanotherspeechcommunity,orfromeratoera.Theanswerisfrompage98(1)mother:Thedenotativemeaningofthewordmotheris“femaleparent”,butitgenerallyconnoteslove,care,tenderness.(2)January:ThewordJanuarydenotes“thefirstmonthoftheyear”,butitconnotescoldweather,abitingnorthwind,snow,centralheating,skatingoreventheNewYear.(3)road:TotheEskimosinGreenland,AlaskaandNorthCanada,whotravelbysledge,roadoftenconnotessnow-coveredground,whiletothoselivinginbigcities,roadconnotessmoothandpeacefulavenueswithtreesalongside,orstreetscrowdedwithpeopleandheavytraffic.(4)UncleSam:UncleSamisatermoffavourableconnotationtomostAmericanintheUnitedStates,butinsomecountriestheoppositeistrue,andanallusiontoUncleSamwouldbeassociatedwithfeelingsofangerandhatredtowardstheAmericangovernment.12.Explainthefollowingtermswithexamples:Theanswerisfrompage101a)semanticfeatures(语义特征)Thelinguisticmeaningofawordisthesetofabstractedcharacteristicsnecessarytodistinguishthecategorywhichthewordnamesfromallothercategories.Theseabstractedcharacteristics（抽象特征）areknownassemanticfeatures.Semanticfeaturesareusedtodescribesemanticuniversals（共性，一般概念）thatmaycharacterizealllanguages.Forexample,[Male],[Female],[Adult],[Non-adult],[Human],[Bovine],[Ovine]and[Porcine]arethesemanticfeatures.b)componentialanalysis（成分分析）Alllanguages,forexample,distinguishnounsthatcategorizeabstractfromconcreteexperience;animatefrominanimatereferents;humanfromnon-human;malefromfemale.Theword‘man’hasthefollowingsemanticfeatures:〔Human〕,〔Adult〕,〔Male〕and〔Concrete〕Thiskindofanalysisisknownascomponentialanalysis.CHAPTER6Ⅰ、Polysemy

1、（1）、Polysemyhasbeendefinedas“Atermusedinsemanticanalysistorefertoalexicalitemwhichhasarangeofdifferentmeanings.”

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23行(2)、Polysemyisalsoanessentialfeatureofalanguage’seconomyandefficiency.Justimaginewhataheavyburdenitwouldbeonthelearner'smemoryifitwerenotpossibleforonewordtopossessseveralsenses.Onewouldbeobligedtolearnatremendousnumberofseparatewordsforeverysubjectonemightwishtotalkabout.

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1417行2、Radiationistheprocessinwhichtheprimaryorcentralmeaningstandsatthecenterwhilesecondarymeaningsradiatefromitineverydirectionlikeray.

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第1719行3、Concatenation,“linkingtogether”,isasemanticprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordmovesgraduallyawayfromitsfirstsensebysuccessiveshifts,likethelinksofachain,untilthereisnoconnectionbetweenthesensethatisfinallydevelopedandtheprimarymeaning.

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1114行4、答案在261页Ⅱ、Homonymy

1、115页倒数第2-3行Perfecthomonyms:Wordsidenticalinsoundandspellingbutdifferentinmeaningarecalledperfecthomonyms.

2、116页第8-9行Homophones:Wordsidenticalinsoundbutdifferentinspellingandmeaningarecalledhomophones.

116页第12-13行Homographs:Wordsidenticalinspellingbutdifferentinsoundandmeaningarecalledhomographs.3、Thesourcesofhomonymsareasfollows:

①Phoneticconvergence:Convergingsounddevelopmengtisthemostcommoncauseofhomonymy,ortobemoreexact,ofhomophones.Undertheinfluenceofphoneticchanges,twoormorewordswhichonceweredifferentinsoundformstakeonthesamepronunciationthespokenlanguage.(出自课本117页)Semanticdivergence:Homonymycanalsobebroughtaboutthroughdivergingsensedevelopment.Whentwoormoremeaningsofthesameworddriftaparttosuchanextentthattherewillbenoobviousconnectionbetweenthem,po;ysemywillgiveplacetohomonymy.(出自课本第118页)Foreigninfluence:WordsintroducedfromabroadhaveincreasedthenumberofhomonymsinEnglish,ascanbeseenfromsomeoftheexamplesalreadygivenintheprecedingsectionon“Phoneticconvergence”and“Semanticdivergence”(出自课本第118页)Shortening:Homonymsmayalsobecreatedbytheword-formationprocessofclipping.Thissourceisofdecidedlysubsidiaryimportanceinformalwritingbuthaswidespreadinfluenceineverydayspeech.Thefollowingwordsaffordgraphicexamplesofthisprocess(课本第119页)

4、答案在261页

5、答案在261-262页

6、答案在262页Chapter7ⅠSynonym1.Commentonthetraditionaldefinitionofsynonyms.What’syourdefinitionforsynonyms?P124Synonymsaretraditionallydefinedaswordsindifferinginsoundformbutidenticalorsimilarinmeaning.P125awordhavingthesamemeaningasotherword:asoneoftwoormorewordsofthesamelanguageandgrammaticalcategoryhavingthesameessentialorgenericmeaninganddifferingonlyinconnotation,application,oridiomaticuse:oneoftwoormorewordshavingessentiallyidenticaldefinitions.2.Whatdowemeanbycompletesynonyms?P125twowordsaretotallysynonymsonlyiftheyarefullyidenticalinmeaningandinterchangeableinanycontextwithouttheslightestalterationinconnotative,affectiveandstylisticmeanings.3.Inwhatrespectsdosynonymouswordsdiffer?P133(1)synonymsofdifferentword-classes(likejealousandjealousy)(2)wordssynonymouswithphases(liketoto-lerateandtoputupwith);(3)differentsentencepatternsexpressingroughlythesameidea.4.Whyaresynonymsusefulforliterarypurposesandforeverydayuseofthelanguage?P132Becauseofthe“sameness”ofthedenotativemeaningofsynonymsandtheirdifferenceinconnotative,stylisticandaffectivemeaning,wecanseesynonymsareusefulforavoidingrepetitionandforachievingprecisioninmeaningandvarietyinstyle.ⅡAntonymP1361.Howdoyoudefineantonyms?Theterm“antonyms”isusedfor“oppositenessofmeaning”;wordsthatareinoppositionareantonymsP1362.WhatismeantbyContraries,complementaries,conversives?Contraries(相对性反义词)Contrariesshowatypeofoppositenessofmeaning,illustratedbysuchpairsasold/young,big/small,long/short,etc.Theycanbeseenintermsofdegreesofthequalityinvolved.Complementaries(互补性反义词）Complementariesrefertoatypeofbinarysemanticcontrastwhichadmitsofnogradabilitybetweenthelexicalitems.Conversives(换位反义词）Conversivesdisplayatypeofoppositenessofmeaning,illustratedbysuchasbuy—sell,give–receive,parent–child,above–below,etc.Thereisaninterdependenceofmeaning.P1483.Whatisthedifferencebetweenroot(固定)antonymsandderivational(派生的)antonyms?Root(固定)antonymsarewordswithdifferenttoots.Derivational(派生的)antonymsarewordswiththesamerootshavingnegativeaffixes,suchashappyandunhappy.4.Whichistheunmarkedmemberinthefollowingantonymouspairs:long,short;high,low?Whatisthedifferencebetweenmarkedandunmarkedones?Unmarkedmember:long;high.Theunmarkedmemberisusedwhenonesimplywishestoknowthestate,qualityoffeaturesofaperson,thing,etc.Themarkedmemberalwayscarriesacertainimplicationofdistinctiveness.Theunmarkedmemberisonewhichcarriesnoparticularimplicationatall.ⅢHyponymyP1501.WhatismeantbyHyponymy?Itistherelationshipwhichobtainsbetweenspecificandgenerallexicalitems,suchthattheformerisincludedinthelatter.Thatistosay,theformerisahyponym(受支配词）ofthelatter.e.g.Acatisahyponymofanimal;fluteisthatofmusicalinstrument;chairoffurniture,andsoon.ChapterVIII（1）Lexicalcontext(词汇语境):itreferstothelexicalitemscombinedwithagivenpolysemousword.Onewordcanbeusedinmanydifferentsenseswhenitiscombinedwithotherlexicalitems.Extra-linguisticcontext(语言之外的环境)：1.theactualspeechsituationinwhichawordoccurs2.theentireculturalbackgroundagainstwhichawordisused（2）thevitalroleofcontextindeterminationofwordmeaningEliminatingambiguities（含糊，不明确）1.Lexicalambiguityduetopolysemy2.Structuralambiguityarisingfromthegrammaticalanalysisofasentenceoraphrase.Conveyingemotionalovertones(感情色彩)Indicatingreferentsandtherangeofthemeaningofaword（3）1）Idon'tagreewiththisremark.Aword’suseisjustapartofitsmeaning.Contextisofgreatimportancefortheunderstandingofwordmeaning,especiallyfortheunderstandingofthemeaningsofpolysemicwords.Nomatterhowmanydenotativemeaningsawordmayhave,generallytherewillbenoriskofmisunderstandingthemeaning,whenitoccursinaparticularcontext.2）Everywordhasameaningormeaningsofitsown,independentofthecontext.Whenwesaycontextdeterminesthewordsense,wedonotmeanthatitgivesasensetotheword,butthatitselectsoneoutofallpossiblemeaningsalreadythere.ChapterIXChangesinwordmeaning1、Explainwhychangeofword-meaningisfundamentalinalivinglanguage?ChangingofmesningcanbeillustratedwithwordsfromanypageofShakespeare.(Eg:inShakespeare’sdays,admirationmeantastonishment;seasonmeantmoderate.so“seasonyouradmirationforawhile…”meant“tomoderatehisastonishment”.)ThechangeofmeaninginEnglishwordswouldofthemselvesprovideenoughmateria