戴伟栋语言学笔记(全)

Chapter1Whatislanguage?[A]TheoriginsoflanguageSomespeculationsoftheoriginsoflanguage:①ThedivinesourceThebasichypothesis:ifinfantswereallowedtogrowupwithouthearinganylanguage,thentheywouldspontaneouslybeginusingtheoriginalgod-givenlanguage.Actually,childrenlivingwithoutaccesstohumanspeechintheirearlyyearsgrowupwithnolanguageatall.②Thenatural-soundsourceThebow-wowtheory:thesuggestionisthatprimitivewordscouldhavebeenimitationsofthenaturalsoundswhichearlymenandwomenheardaroundthem.The“Yo-heave-ho”theory:thesoundsproducedbyhumanswhenexertingphysicaleffort,especiallywhenco-operatingwithotherhumans,maybetheoriginsofspeechsounds.Onomatopoeicsounds③Theoral-gesturesourceItisclaimedthatoriginallyasetofphysicalgestureswasdevelopedasameansofcommunication.Thepatternsofmovementinarticulationwouldbethesameasgesturalmovement;hencewavingtonguewoulddevelopfromwavinghand.④（言语遗传学）Thisfocusesmainlyonthebiologicalbasisoftheformationanddevelopmentofhumanlanguage.PhysiologicalnamingabilityàinteractionsandtransactionsPhysicaladaptation:Humanteethareuprightandroughlyeveninheight.Humanlipshaveintricatemuscleinterlacing,thusmakingthemveryflexible.Thehumanmouthissmallandcontainsaveryflexibletongue.Thehumanlarynxislowered,creatingalongercavitycalledthepharynx,andmakingiteasierforthehumantochokeonthepiecesoffood,butmakingthesoundspeechpossible.Thehumanbrainislateralized.Thoseanalyticfunctions(tool-usingandlanguage)arelargelyconfinedtothelefthemisphereofthebrainformosthumans.Twomajorfunctionsoflanguage:Interactional:asocialfunctionoflanguage.Transactional:afunctioninvolvingthecommunicationofknowledgeandinformation[B]ThepropertiesoflanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.a)System:combinedtogetheraccordingtorulesb)Arbitrary:nointrinsicconnectionbetweentheword“pen”andthethingintheworldwhichitreferstoc)Vocal:theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguagesd)Human:languageis（交际性与信息性）Communicativevs.Informative:Communicative:intentionallyusinglanguagetocommunicatesomethingInformative:through/viaanumberofsignalsthatarenotintentionallysentDesignfeatures(uniqueproperties):thedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication①Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker(refertopastandfuturetimeandtootherlocations)②（任意性）Thereisnologicalornaturalconnectionbetweenalinguisticform(eithersoundorword)anditsmeaning.Whilelanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.a)echoofthesoundsofobjectsoractivities:onomatopoeicwordsb)somecompoundwords③Productivity（能产性，创造性）Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.(Creativityoropen-endedness)④Cultural（文化传递性）Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis(everyonewasbornwiththeabilitytoacquirealanguage),thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnt.⑤（可分离性）Eachsoundinthelanguageistreatedasdiscrete.⑥Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Languageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayerssimultaneously.Thelowerorbasiclevelisastructureofsoundswhicharemeaningless.Thehigherlevelismorphemeorword(doublearticulation)Theabovesixpropertiesmaybetakenasthecorefeaturesofhumanlanguage.Vocal-auditorychannel,reciprocity,specialization,non-directionality,orrapidfade,thesepropertiesarebesttreatedaswaysofdescribinghumanlanguage,butnotasameansofdistinguishingitfromothersystemsofcommunication.[C]Thedevelopmentofwrittenlanguage①pictograms&（象形文字和表意文字）Pictogram:whensomeofthepicturescametorepresentparticularimagesinaconsistentway,wecanbegintodescribetheproductasaformofpicture-writing,orpictograms.Ideogram:thepicturedevelopedasmoreabstractandusedotherthanitsentityisconsideredtobepartofasystemofidea-writing,orideogramHieroglyph:古埃及象形文字②（语标书写法）Whensymbolscometobeusedtorepresentwordsinalanguage,theyaredescribedasexamplesofword-writing,orlogograms.awritingsystemwhichwasword-basedhadcomeintoexistence.楔形文字—theSumerians(5000and6000yearsago)Chineseisoneexampleofitsmodernwritingsystem.Advantages:twodifferentdialectscanbebasedonthesamewritingsystem.Disadvantages:vastnumberofdifferentwrittenforms.③Syllabicwriting（音节书写法）Whenawritingsystememploysasetofsymbolswhichrepresentthepronunciationsofsyllables,itisdescribedassyllabicwriting.ThePhoenicians:thefirsthumanbeingsthatappliedthefulluseofasyllabicwritingsystem(ca1000BC)④Alphabetic（字母书写法）Semiticlanguages(ArabicandHebrew):firstappliedthisruleTheGreeks:takingtheinherentlysyllabicsystemfromthePhoeniciansviatheRomansLatinalphabetandCyrillicalphabet(Slaviclanguages)⑤RebuswritingRobuswritingevolvesaprocesswherebythesymbolusedforanentitycomestobeusedforthesoundofthespokenwordusedforthatentity.Chapter2Whatislinguistics?[A]ThedefinitionoflinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Processoflinguisticstudy:①Certainlinguisticfactsareobserved,generalizationareformed;②Hypothesesareformulated;③Hypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations;④Alinguistictheoryisconstructed.Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.[B]ThescopeoflinguisticsGenerallinguistics:thestudyoflanguageasawholePhonetics:thegeneralstudyofthecharacteristicsofspeechsounds(orthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage)(Howspeechsoundsareproducedandclassified)Phonology:isessentiallythedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalanguage.(Howsoundsformsystemsandfunctiontoconveymeaning)Morphology:thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwords(howmorphemesarecombinedtoformwords)Syntax:thestudyofthoserulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformpermissiblesentences(howmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentences)Semantics:thestudyofmeaninginabstractionPragmatics:thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseSociolinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyPsycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofthemindAppliedlinguistics:theapplicationoflinguisticsprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearningAnthropologicallinguistics,neurologicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;computationallinguistics[C]Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics①Prescriptivevs.Descriptive②Synchronicvs.DiachronicThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime;Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.③SpeechandwritingSpokenlanguageisprimary,notthewritten④LangueandparoleProposedbySwisslinguistsF.deSausse(sociological)Langue:referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityParole:referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse⑤CompetenceandperformanceProposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomsky(psychological)Competence:theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguageChapter3Phoneticsandphonology[A]ThedefinitionofphoneticsPhonetics:thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage:itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.Articulatoryphonetics:thestudyofhowspeechsoundsaremade,orarticulated.Acousticphonetics:dealswiththephysicalpropertiesofspeechassoundwavesintheair.Auditory(orperceptual)phonetics:dealswiththeperception,viatheear,ofspeechsounds.Forensicphonetics:hasanapplicationinlegalcasesinvolvingspeakeridentificationandtheanalysisofrecordedutterances.[B]OrgansofspeechVoiceless:whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfromthelungspassesbetweenthemunimpeded.Voiced:whenthevocalcordsaredrawntogether,theairfromthelungsrepeatedpushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingavibrationeffect.AlltheEnglishvowelsaretypicallyvoiced(voicing).Theimportantcavities:ThepharyngealcavityTheoralcavityThenasalcavityLips,teeth,teethridge(alveolus),hardpalate,softpalate(velum),uvula,tipoftongue,bladeoftongue,backoftongue,vocalcords[C]OrthographicrepresentationofspeechsoundsBroadandnarrowtranscriptionsIPA(InternationalPhoneticAlphabet/Association)Broadtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonlyNarrowtranscription:thetranscriptionwithdiacriticsE.g.:[l]à[li:f]--àaclear[l](nodiacritic)[l]à[bild]--àadark[l](~)[l]à[helW]--àadental[l]()[p]à[pit]--àanaspirated[ph](h)[p]à[spit]--àanunaspirated[p](nodiacritic)[n]à[5bQtn]àasyllabicnasal[n](7)[D]ClassificationofEnglishconsonantsIntermsofmannerofarticulation(themannerinwhichobstructioniscreated)①Stops:theobstructionistotalorcomplete,andthengoingabruptly[p]/,[t]/[d],[k]/[g]②Fricatives:theobstructionispartial,andtheairisforcedthroughanarrowpassageinthemonth[f]/[v],[s]/[z],[W]/[T],[F]/[V],[h](approximant)③Affricates:theobstruction,completeatfirst,isreleasedslowlyasinfricatives[tF]/[dV]④Liquids:theairflowisobstructedbutisallowedtoescapethroughthepassagebetweenpartorpartsofthetongueandtheroofofthemouth[l]àalateralsound;[r]àretroflex⑤Glides:[w],[j](semi-vowels)Liquid+glides+[h]àapproximants⑥Nasals:thenasalpassageisopenedbyloweringthesoftpalatetoletairpassthroughit[m],],[][Byplaceofarticulation(theplacewhereobstructioniscreated)①bilabials:upperandlowerlipsarebroughttogethertocreateobstructions[p]/,[w]à(velar)②labiodentals:thelowerlipandtheupperteeth[f]/[v]③dentals:thetipofthetongueandtheupperfrontteeth[W]/[T]④alveolars:thefrontpartofthetongueonthealveolarridge[t]/[d],[s]/[z],[n],[l],[r]⑤alveo-palatals(palato-alveolars):tongueandtheveryfrontofthepalate,nearthealveolarridge[F]/[V],[t]/[d]⑥palatal:tongueinthemiddleofthepalate[j]⑦velars:thebackofthetongueagainstthevelum[k],[g],[N]…[w]⑧glottals:theglottalisthespacebetweenthevocalcordsinthelarynx[h][E]ClassificationofEnglishvowelsFronti:CentralBackClosei`u:uSemi-closeeSemi-openOpenABE:EC:QRB:①Thehighestpositionofthetongue:front,central,back;②Theopennessofthemouth:close,semi-close,semi-open,open;③Theroundness(shape)ofthemonth(thelips):Allthefront,centralvowelsareunroundedvowelsexcept[B]Allthebackvowels,except[A:]areroundedvowels④Thelengthofthesound:longvowels&shortvowelsLarynxà(tense)or(lax)Monophthongs,diphthongsCardinalvowels[F]ThedefinitionofphonologyPhoneticsisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonology,ontheotherhand,isinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguages;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.[G]Phone,phoneme,andallophonePhone:thedifferentversionsoftheabstractunit–phonemePhoneme:themean-distinguishingsoundinalanguage,placedinslashmarksAllophone:asetofphones,allofwhichareversionsofonephoneme[G]Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpairPhonemiccontrast:whentwophonemescanoccurinthesameenvironmentsintwowordsandtheydistinguishmeaning,they’reinphonemiccontrast.E.g.pin&binà/p/vs./b/rope&robeà/p/vs./b/Complementarydistribution:twoormorethantwoallophonesofthesamephonemesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecausetheycannotappearatthesametime,oroccurindifferentenvironment,besidestheydonotdistinguishmeaning.Minimalpair:whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Whenagroupofwordscanbedifferentiated,eachonefromtheothers,bychangingonephoneme(alwaysinthesameposition),thenallofthesewordsconstituteaminimalsets.[H]Somerulesinphonology①sequentialrulesSyllableOnsetrimeNucleuscoda[Consonant]vowel[consonant(