语言学导论课后习题答案

Chapter4MorphologyWhatismorphology?Thetotalnumberofwordsstoredinthebrainiscalledthelexicon.Wordsarethesmallestfreeunitsoflanguagethatunitesoundswithmeaning.Morphologyisdefinedasthestudyoftheinternalstructureandtheformationofwords.MorphemesandallomorphsThesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageiscalledamorpheme.Amorphememayberepresentedbydifferentforms,calledallomorphs."zero"formofamorphemeandsuppletivesSomecountablenounsdonotchangeformtoexpressplurality.Similarly,someregularverbsdonotchangeformtoindicatepasttense.Inthesetwocases,thenounorverbcontainstwomorphemes,amongwhichthereisone “zeroform"ofamorpheme.Someverbshaveirregularchangeswhentheyareinpasttense.Inthiscase,theverbsalsohavetwomorphemes.Wordswhicharenotrelatedinformtoindicategrammaticalcontrastwiththeirrootsarecalledsuppletives.FreeandboundmorphemesSomemorphemesconstitutewordsbythemselves.Thesemorphemesarecalledfreemorphemes.Othermorphemesareneverusedindependentlyinspeechandwriting.Theyarealwaysattachedtofreemorphemestoformnewwords.Thesemorphemesarecalledboundmorphemes.Thedistinctionbetweenafreemorphemesandaboundmorphemeiswhetheritcanbeusedindependentlyinspeechorwriting.Freemorphemesaretherootsofwords,whileboundmorphemesaretheaffixes(prefixesandsuffixes).InflexionalandderivationalmorphemesInflexionalmorphemesinmodernEnglishindicatecaseandnumberofnouns,tenseandaspectofverbs,anddegreeofadjectivesandadverbs.Derivationalmorphemesareboundmorphemesaddedtoexistingformstoconstructnewwords.Englishaffixesaredividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.Somelanguageshaveinfixes,boundmorphemeswhichareinsertedintoothermorphemes.Theprocessofputtingaffixestoexistingformstocreatenewwordsiscalledderivation.Wordsthusformedarecalledderivatives.Conclusion:classificationofmorphemesMorphemesFreemorphemesBoundmorphemesInflexionalDerivational:affixesPrefixes:-s,-'ser,-est,-ing,-ed,-sSuffixesFormationofnewwordsDerivationDerivationformsawordbyaddinganaffixtoafreemorpheme.Sincederivationcanapplymorethanonce,itispossibletocreateaderivedwordwithanumberofaffixes.Forexample,ifweaddaffixestothewordfriend,wecanformbefriend,friendly,unfriendly,friendliness,unfriendliness,etc.Thisprocessofaddingmorethanoneaffixtoafreemorphemeistermedcomplexderivation.Derivationdoesnotapplyfreelytoanywordofagivencategory.Generallyspeaking,affixescannotbeaddedtomorphemesofadifferentlanguageorigin.Derivationisalsoconstrainedbyphonologicalfactors.SomeEnglishsuffixesalsochangethewordstress.CompoundingCompoundingisanothercommonwaytoformwords.Itisthecombinationoffreemorphemes.ThemajorityofEnglishcompoundsarethecombinationofwordsfromthethreeclasses-nouns,verbsandadjectives-andfallintothethreeclasses.Incompounds,therightmostmorphemedeterminesthepartofspeechoftheword.Themeaningofcompoundsisnotalwaysthesumofmeaningofthecomponents.ConversionConversionistheprocessputtinganexistingwordofoneclassintoanotherclass.Conversionisusuallyfoundinwordscontainingonemorpheme.ClippingClippingisaprocessthatshortensapolysyllabicwordbydeletingoneormoresyllables.ClippedwordsareinitiallyusedinspokenEnglishoninformaloccasions.Someclippedwordshavebecomewidelyaccepted,andareusedeveninformalstyles.Forexample,thewordsbus(omnibus),vet(veterinarian),gym(gymnasium),fridge(refrigerator)andfax(facsimile)arerarelyusedintheircompleteform.BlendingBlendingisaprocessthatcreatesnewwordsbyputtingtogethernon-morphemicpartsofexistingwords.Forexample,smog(smoke+frog),brunch(amealinthemiddleofmorning,replacingbothbreakfastandlunch),motel(motor+hotel).Thereisalsoaninterestingwordinthetextbookforjuniormiddleschoolstudents-"plike”(akindofmachinethatislikebothaplaneandabike).Back-formationBack-formationistheprocessthatcreatesanewwordbydroppingarealorsupposedsuffix.Forexample,thewordteleviseisback-formedfromtelevision.Originally,thewordtelevisionisformedbyputtingtheprefixtele-(far)totherootvision(viewing).Atthesametime,thereisasuffix-sioninEnglishindicatingnouns.Thenpeopleconsiderthe -sioninthewordtelevisionasthatsuffixanddropittoformtheverbtelevise.AcronymsandabbreviationsAcronymsandabbreviationsareformedbyputtingtogethertheinitiallettersofallwordsinaphraseortitle.Acronymscanbereadasawordandareusuallylongerthanabbreviations,whicharereadletterbyletter.Thistypeofwordformationiscommoninnamesoforganizationsandscientificterminology.EponymsEponymsarewordsthatoriginatefrompropernamesofindividualsorplaces.Forexample,thewordsandwichisacommonnounoriginatingfromthefourthEarlofSandwich,whoputhisfoodbetweentwoslicesofbreadsothathecouldeatwhilegambling.CoinageCoinageisaprocessofinventingwordsnotbasedonexistingmorphemes.Thiswayofwordformationisespeciallycommonincaseswhereindustryrequiresawordforanewproduct.Forexample,KodakandCoca-cola.Formoredetailedexplanationtothewaysofwordformation,seemynotesofPracticalEnglishGrammar.转自［英美者卜英语专业网站：cs/86983.htmlChapter3PhonologyWhatisphonology?Phonologyisthestudyofsoundsystemsandpatterns.Phonologyandphoneticsaretwostudiesdifferentinperspectives,whichareconcernedwiththestudyofspeechsounds.Phonologyfocusesonthreefundamentalquestions.Whatsoundsmakeupthelistofsoundsthatcandistinguishmeaninginaparticularlanguage?Whatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontext?Whatsoundscanappeartogetherinasequenceinaparticularlanguage?PhonemesandallophonesAphonemeisadistinctive,abstractsoundunitwithadistinctivefeature.Thevariantsofaphonemearetermedallophones.Weuseallophonestorealizephonemes.DiscoveringphonemesContrastivedistribution-phonemesIfsoundsappearinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.Typicalcontrastivedistributionofsoundsisfoundinminimalpairsandminimalsets.Aminimalpairconsistsoftwowordsthatdifferbyonlyonesoundinthesameposition.Minimalsetsaremorethantwowordsthataredistinguishedbyonesegmentinthesameposition.TheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheconsonantsandvowelsrepresentedbytheEnglishphoneticalphabetareincontrastivedistribution.SomesoundscanhardlybefoundincontrastivedistributioninEnglish.However,thesesoundsaredistinctiveintermsofphoneticfeatures.Therefore,theyareseparatephonemes.Complementarydistribution-allophonesSoundsthatarenotfoundinthesamepositionaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.Ifsegmentsareincomplementarydistributionandshareanumberoffeatures,theyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.FreevariationIfsegmentsappearinthesamepositionbutthemutualsubstitutiondoesnotresultinchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.Distinctiveandnon-distinctivefeaturesFeaturesthatdistinguishmeaningarecalleddistinctivefeatures,andfeaturesdonot,non-distinctivefeatures.Distinctivefeaturesinonelanguagemaybenon-distinctiveinanother.PhonologicalrulesPhonemesareabstractsoundunitsstoredinthemind,whileallophonesaretheactualpronunciationsinspeech.Whatphonemeisrealizedbywhatallophonesinwhatspecificcontextisanothermajorquestioninphonology.Theregularitiesthatwhatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontextaregeneralizedandstatedinphonologyasrules.TherearemanyphonologicalrulesinEnglish.Takethefollowingonesasexamples.[+voiced+consonant]-[-voiced]/卜voiced+consonant]_[-voiced+bilabial+stop]-unaspirated/[-voiced+alveolar+fricative]_SyllablestructureAsyllableisaphonologicalunitthatiscomposedofoneormorephonemes.Everysyllablehasanucleus,whichisusuallyavowel.Thenucleusmaybeprecededbyoneormoreconsonantscalledtheonsetandfollowedbyoneormoreconsonantscalledthecoda.SequenceofphonemesNativespeakersofanylanguageintuitivelyknowwhatsoundscanbeputtogether.SomesequencesarenotpossibleinEnglish.Theimpossiblesequencesarecalledsystematicgaps.Sequencesthatarepossiblebutdonotoccuryetarecalledaccidentalgaps.Whennewwordsarecoined,theymayfillsomeaccidentalgapsbuttheywillneverfillsystematicgaps.SuprasegmentalfeaturesFeaturesthatarefoundoverasegmentorasequenceoftwoormoresegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Thesefeaturesaredistinctivefeatures.StressStressistheperceivedprominenceofoneormoresyllabicelementsoverothersinaword.Stressisarelativenotion.Onlywordsthatarecomposedoftwoormoresyllableshavestress.Ifawordhasthreeormoresyllables,thereisaprimarystressandasecondarystress.Insomelanguageswordstressisfixed,i.e.onacertainsyllable.InEnglish,wordstressisunpredictable.IntonationWhenwespeak,wechangethepitchofourvoicetoexpressideas.Intonationisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishutterancemeaning.Thesamesentenceutteredwithdifferentintonationmayexpressdifferentattitudeofthespeaker.InEnglish,therearethreebasicintonationpatterns:fall,rise,fall-rise.ToneToneisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishwords.Thesamesequenceofsegmentscanbedifferentwordsifutteredwithdifferenttones.Chineseisatypicaltonelanguage.-转自［英美者卜英语专业网站： ml/M/Linguistics/86123.htmlChapter2PhoneticsWhatisphonetics?Phoneticsistermedasthestudyofspeechsounds.Sub-branchesofphoneticsArticulatoryphonetics-theproductionofspeechsoundsAcousticphonetics-thephysicalpropertiesofspeechsoundsAuditoryphonetics-theperceptivemechanismofspeechsoundsThespeechorgansWheredoestheairstreamcomefrom?FromthelungWhatisthefunctionofvocalcords?ControllingtheairstreamWhatarethecavities?OralcavityPharyngealcavityNasalcavityTranscriptionofspeechsoundsUnitsofrepresentationSegments(theindividualsounds)PhoneticsymbolsThewidelyusedsymbolsforphonetictranscriptionofspeechsoundsistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).TheIPAattemptstorepresenteachsoundofhumanspeechwithasinglesymbolandthesymbolsareenclosedinbrackets[]todistinguishphonetictranscriptionsfromthespellingsystemofalanguage.Inmoredetailedtranscription(narrowtranscription)asoundmaybetranscribedwithasymboltowhichasmallerisaddedinordertomarkthefinerdistinctions.DescriptionofspeechsoundsDescriptionofEnglishconsonantsGeneralfeature:obstructionCriteriaofconsonantdescriptionPlacesofarticulationMannersofarticulationVoicingofarticulationPlacesofarticulationThisreferstoeachpointatwhichtheairstreamcanbemodifiedtoproduceasound.Bilabial:[p][b][m][w]Labiodental:[f][v]Interdental:[][]Alveolar:[t][d][s][z][l][n][r]Palatal:[][][t][d][j]Velar:[k][g][]Glottal:[h]MannersofarticulationThisreferstohowtheairstreamismodified,whetheritiscompletelyblockedorpartiallyobstructed.Stops:[p][b][t][d][k][g]Fricatives:[s][z][ ][][f][v][ ][][h]Affricates:[t][d]Liquids:[l][r]Glides:[w][j]Nasals:[m][n][]VoicingofarticulationThisreferstothevibratingofthevocalcordswhensoundsareproduced.VoicedsoundsVoicelesssoundsDescriptionofEnglishvowelsGeneralfeature:withoutobstructionCriteriaofvoweldescriptionPartofthetonguethatisraisedFrontCentralBackExtenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalateHighMidLowKindofopeningmadeatthelipsPositionofthesoftpalateSinglevowels(monophthongs)anddiphthongsPhoneticfeaturesandnaturalclassesClassesofsoundsthatshareafeatureorfeaturesarecallednaturalclasses.Majorclassfeaturescanspecifysegmentsacrosstheconsonant-vowelboundary.Classificationofsegmentsbyfeaturesisthebasisonwhichvariationsofsoundscanbeanalyzed.第三章“词汇”问题和练习.解释下列术语语素复合词屈折变化词缀派生词词根语素变体词干粘着语素自由语素词位词汇语法词词汇词封闭类开放类混成法借词混合借词转移借词缩略语脱落逆构词法同化异化俗词源.给下列词加上适当的否定前缀removablem.syllabicformaln.normalpracticableo.workablesensiblep.writtentangibleq.usuallogicalr.thinkableregulars.humanproportionatet.relevanteffectiveu.editableelasticv.mobileductivew.legalrationalx.discreet.语素被定义为表达和内容关系的最小单位。 那么语素是语法概念还是语义概念？它跟单位是什么关系？语素和音位能够构成一个有机整体吗？.阅读下面一段话，列出所有能找到的功能词。(包括be的所有形式，都看作功能词)并给出这段话中功能词的百分比。Shewasasmallwoman,oldandwrinkled.Whenshestartedwashingforus,shewasalreadypastseventy.MostJewishwomenofherageweresickly,weak,brokeninbody.Butthiswashwoman,smallandthinasshewas,possessedastrengththatcamefromgenerationofpeasantancestors.Motherwouldcountouttoherabagoflaundrythathadaccumulatedoverseveralweeks.Shewouldlifttheheavybag,loaditonhernarrowshoulders,andcarryitthelongwayhome..”完全由两个或更多的较小形式构成的自由形式是词组。不是词组的自由形式是词。那么，词……是最小的自由形式。 "(布龙菲尔德，1935:178)回答下面的问题：(a)"词"这个术语是有歧义的。布龙菲尔德的定义想要涵盖哪一种词？(b)英语中有没有传统认为是词(在 "词”的合适意义上)却不能满足布龙菲尔德定义的词？(c)词的定义中还用到了哪些其他的标准？.找出下列混合词的来源。假如词典中没有提供答案，请根据自己的理解来判断。(a)bash;(b)smash;(c)glimmer;(d)flimmer;(e)clash;(f)flare;(g)brunch;(h)motel;(i)transistor;(j)medicare;(k)workaholic;(l)spam;(m)telethon;(n)aerobicise;(o)chunnel;(p)chortle;(q)bit;(r)modem;(s)guestimate;(t)threepeat..确定第一栏中词的正确历史语源，并在第二栏或第三栏中选出正确的解释。栏1栏2栏3hangnailachingnailhangingnailfemaleamale'scompanionlittlewomancrayfishcrawlingfishcrabshamefacedfacereflectingshameboundbyshameJordanalmondimportedalmondgardenalmondsparrowgrassagenusofherbsbirdnestingingrassbelfrebelltowerbellbridegroomawomanisjustoramanisjust,oraboutabouttobemarriedtobemarriedmuskratalargerat-likeanimalalargemuskdeer(Algonquian:musquash)woodchuckanorthAmericangoatanorthAmerican(Algonquian:otchek)marmot.从下面的逆构词确定本来项目的形式。asset:burgle:enthuse:greed:hush:automate:donate:escalate:homesick:peddle:diagnose:tuit: amusing:(n)loaf: self-destruct:attrit:hairdress:emote:drowse:frivol:9.确定下列词语的直接语源。 (例如，"meaning”的直接语源是法语，尽管它更远的来源是拉丁语。)air: barbecue:bungalow:cola:gusto:Babel:buffalo:cocoa:costume:ill: mule:decreed:revolution:(n)benevolent:lie: topic:subject:theme:wind:datum:.把下列词语进行分类，分出借词(LW)、混合借词(LB)、转移借词(LS)、翻译借词(LT):boobytrap,coconut,loanword,monk,firewater,freeverse,warpaint,yankee..如果有两个词缀-ly,一个生成形容词，另一个附在形容词后生成副词，我们能找到同时包含这两个词缀的词吗？.从下列词语中列出后面能加 -s的名词。epiphany,foot,hat,house,kitchen,ox,phenomenon,region,sheep,tomato.有没有这样的词缀，能附加在动词后面，不会产生或没有很特殊的意义，而且不会改变动词的类别？转自［英美者卜英语专业网站：2.irremovablem.dissyllabicinformaln.abnormalimpracticableo.unworkableinsensiblep.unwrittenintangibleq.unusualillogicalr.unthinkableirregulars.inhumandisproportionatet.irrelevantineffectiveu.uneditableinelasticv.immobileinductivew.illegalirrationalx.indiscreet.既然把语素定义为表达和内容关系的最小单位，那么它同时涉及了语言单位的语法方面和语义方面。一个语素可能就是一个音位，如I(我)；但是一个语素通常不是一个音位，如pig(猪)，整个单词是一个语素，也就是说 pig是具独立的自由语素，但是音位是 /p/,/I/和/g/。.这段话中包含的功能词有： she,was,a,and,when,she,for,she,was,past,of,her,were,in,but,this,and,as,she,a,that,from,of,would,to,her,a,of,that,had,over,she,would,the,it,on,her,and,it和the。整段文章共有85个单诩词。其中功能词有40个。所以功能词在这段文章中所占的比例是40/85〜47%.(a)布龙菲尔德想把book,books,或者do,does,did,done这样的词自主理成同一个词的不同形式，而不是看作不同的词。 但另一方面，他又主张把John'shat中的John's当作一个词。同样theboy's(hat)也只是一个词。由此我们可以看出布龙菲尔德对词的定义， 是想要用同样的标准来涵盖不同的语言单位。(b)像和这样的语法冠词，传统认为是跟所修饰的中心语不同的词。但是布龙菲尔德不这样看，具体观点参看(a)。(c)因此，在定义词的范围时， 还考虑了语法标准。例如，thekingofEngland's或者themanIsawyesterday这样一些用作前修饰的成分，布龙菲尔德把它们作为独立的长词处理。其实这种修饰词，是降级短语，根本就是不词。.bash：(b)at+m(ash)smash:(sm)ack+m(ash)glimmer:(g)leam+sh(immer)clash:(cl)ap+cr(ash)flare:(fl)ame+gl(immer)brunch:(br)eakfast+l(unch)motel:(mo)tor+ho(tel)transistor:(trans)fer+res(ister)medicare:(medi)cal+(care)workaholic:(work)+alco(holic)spam:(sp)iced+h(am)telethon:(tele)phone+mara(thon)(n)aerobicise:(aerobi)cs+exer(cise)chunnel:(ch)uckle+sn(ort)chortle:(ch)uckle+sn(ort)bit:(b)inary+dig(it)modem:(mo)dulator+(dem)odulatorguestimate:(guess)+es(timate)threepeat:(three)+re(peat)7.确定第一栏中词的正确历史语源，并在第二栏或第三栏中划出正确的单词。hangnail(由agnail,angnail变化而来) achingnailfemale(中古英语：femel,femelle)amale'scompanion(c)(中古英语：jardinalmande)gardenalmondshamefaced(由asparagus变化而来) boundbyshameJordanalmond(中古英语：jardinalmandegardenalmond⑴sparrowgrass(由asparagus变化而来) agenusofherbsbelfre(中古英语： berfrey)belltowerbridegroom(中古英语：bridegome)amanisjust,orabouttobemarried⑴muskrat(阿尔冈琴语系： musquash)alargerat-likeanimal⑴woodchuck(阿尔冈琴语系： otchek)anorthAmericanmarmot8.(a)asset:(assets)burgle:(burglar)enthuse:(enthusiasm)greed:(greedy)hush:(husht)automate:(automation)donate:(donation)escalate:(escalator)homesick:(homesickness)peddle:(peddler)diagnose:(diagnosis)tuit:(intuition)amusing:(amuse)(n)loaf:(loafer)self-destruct:(self-destruction)attrit:(attrition)hairdress:(hairdresser)emote:(emotion)drowse:(drowsy)frivol:(frivolous)9.(a)air:中世纪英语barbecue:美洲西班牙bungalow:北印度语cola:源自非洲语言gusto:西班牙语Babel:圣经buffalo:意大利语cocoa:西班牙语costume:法语ill:中世纪英语mule:中世纪英语decreed:拉丁语revolution:中世纪英语(n)benevolent:中世名己英语lie:中世纪英语topic:拉丁语subject:中世纪英语theme:中世纪英语wind:中世纪英语⑴datum:拉丁语.借词混合借词转移借词翻译借词monkboobytrapyankeefirewaterloanwordcoconutfreeversewarpaint.不能。*friendilily*timelily*ghostlily-ed表示一般过去时：Hewalkedhome.-s表示一般现在时：Hewalkshome.-ing表示进行体：Heiswalkinghome.转自［英美者卜英语专业网站：.名词解释概念意义外延内涵指称涵义同义关系互补反义关系等级反义关系反向反义关系关系对立上下义关系上坐标词语义成分复合性选择限制命题逻辑命题谓词逻辑.下面这段话选自Lewiscarroll的ThroughtheLookingGlass,讨论其中mean一词的意义。"Don'tstandchatteringtoyourselflikethat,"HumptyDumptysaid,lookingatherforthefirsttime,"buttellmeyournameandyourbusiness.""MynameisAlice,but-""It'sastupidnameenough!"HumptyDumptyinterruptedimpatiently."Whatdoseitmean?""Mustanamemeansomething?"Aliceaskeddoubtfully."OfcourseItmust,"HumptyDumptysaidwithashortlaugh:"mynamemeanstheshapeIam-andahandsomeshapeitis,too.Withanamelikeyours,youmightbeanyshape,almost.".从语义学角度，特别是从涵义关系角度，分析下面这首诗。ColouredDearWhiteFellaYouWhiteFellaCouplethingsyoushouldknow-Whenyouborn,youpinkWhenIborn,IblackWhenyougrowup,youwhiteWhenIgrowup,IblackWhenyougoinsun,youredWhenIgoinsun,IblackWhenyoucold,youblueWhenIcold,IblackWhenyouscared,youyellowWhenIscared,IblackWhenyousick,yougreenWhenIsick,IblackAndwhenyoudieyougreyAndwhenIdie-IstillblackAndyouhavethecheekTocallmecoloured?.有人主张没有真正的同义词。如果两词意义的确相同，那么其中一个终将消亡。人们常引的一个例子是单词 "wireless"的废弃，它被"radio”所取代。你同意这种看法吗？一般地看，当我们说两词互为同义词时，是指的哪种意义类型？.本文没有提及"friendly:unfriendly","honest:dishonest","normal:abnormal","frequent:infrequent","logical:illogical"和"responsible:irresponsible"这样的反义词。它们属于哪种反义关系？.英国语言学家F.R.Palmer在他的Semantics(《语义学》)(p.97)一书中指出，"在［等级反义关系和互补反义关系 ］之间没有绝对的区分。有时我们可以把 male/female,married/single,alive/dead看作等级反义词，某人可能 verymale(很男性化)或者moremarried(更像已婚的)，而且当然可能moredeadthanalive."试评论此观点。.姜望琪(1991:79)称"在某种程度上，我们可以说任何两个同词性的词都可能成为反义词，只要这两个词之间的意义差别在该上下文正好是需要强调的这一点。 "他用的两个例句如下所示。你怎么看待这一观点？Youhavetopeelarawpotatobutyoucanskinaboiledone.He'snostatesman,butamerepolitician..把下面的逻辑式翻译成英语。 其中a=Ann,b=Bill,c=Carol,L=like,M=mother,x和y是变项，可根据量词的不同译为 "someone","anyone"或"everyone"。M(a,b)L(b,c)&L(c,b)L(a,b)&〜L(a,c)(d)［反E］x(L(x,b))(e)〜［倒A］x(L(x,c))(f)〜［反E］x(［倒A］y(L(y,x)))转自［英美者卜英语专业网站：.文中"意义"(mean)表币"所指"(referto),这是它在"指称论"中所用的意义。.这首诗涉及单词"coloured”的意义。作者巧妙地利用了它 "不同的颜色”这一意义来反对把黑人称为"有色人种"。这也从另一角度表明，"coloured"不是"red"(红色的)、"green"(绿色的)、"fellow(黄色的)等词的上坐标词。.没有绝对的同义词，这一看法是正确的。当人们说两词同义时，通常是指它们有相同的概念意义。.从词源上讲，这些反义词可能都是互补的。但是实际上，其中有些现在是等级的，特别是"friendly:unfriendly。.对语言学初学者讲等级反义关系和互补反义关系之间的区分是相对的， 这一做法不可取。表达式"moredeadthanally，'并个是真正的比较级。.这一看法是有道理的。.AnnisBill'smother.BilllovesCarol,andCarollovesBill.AnnlovesBill,butAnndoesn'tloveCarol.SomeonelovesBill.NoteveryonelovesCarol.⑴Thereisnoonewhoislovedbyeveryone.转自［英美者卜英语专业网站：3第三章“词汇”问题和练习.解释下列术语语素复合词屈折变化词缀派生词词根语素变体词干粘着语素自由语素词位词汇语法词词汇词封闭类开放类混成法借词混合借词转移借词缩略语脱落逆构词法同化异化俗词源.给下列词加上适当的否定前缀removablem.syllabicformaln.normalpracticableo.workablesensiblep.writtentangibleq.usuallogicalr.thinkableregulars.humanproportionatet.relevanteffectiveu.editableelasticv.mobileductivew.legall.rationalx.discreet.语素被定义为表达和内容关系的最小单位。 那么语素是语法概念还是语义概念？它跟单位是什么关系？语素和音位能够构成一个有机整体吗？.阅读下面一段话，列出所有能找到的功能词。（包括be的所有形式，都看作功能词）并给出这段话中功能词的百分比。Shewasasmallwoman,oldandwrinkled.Whenshestartedwashingforus,shewasalreadypastseventy.MostJewishwomenofherageweresickly,weak,brokeninbody.Butthiswashwoman,smallandthinasshewas,possessedastrengththatcamefromgenerationofpeasantancestors.Motherwouldcountouttoherabagoflaundrythathadaccumulatedoverseveralweeks.Shewouldlifttheheavybag,loaditonhernarrowshoulders,andcarryitthelongwayhome..”完全由两个或更多的较小形式构成的自由形式是词组。不是词组的自由形式是词。那么，词……是最小的自由形式。"(布龙菲尔德，1935:178)回答下面的问题：(a)"词"这个术语是有歧义的。布龙菲尔德的定义想要涵盖哪一种词？(b)英语中有没有传统认为是词(在 "词”的合适意义上)却不能满足布龙菲尔德定义的词？(c)词的定义中还用到了哪些其他的标准？.找出下列混合词的来源。假如词典中没有提供答案，请根据自己的理解来判断。(a)bash;(b)smash;(c)glimmer;(d)flimmer;(e)clash;(f)flare;(g)brunch;(h)motel;(i)transistor;(j)medicare;(k)workaholic;(l)spam;(m)telethon;(n)aerobicise;(o)chunnel;(p)chortle;(q)bit;(r)modem;(s)guestimate;(t)threepeat..确定第一栏中词的正确历史语源，并在第二栏或第三栏中选出正确的解释。栏1栏2栏3hangnailachingnailhangingnailfemaleamale'scompanionlittlewomancrayfishcrawlingfishcrabshamefacedfacereflectingshameboundbyshameJordanalmondimportedalmondgardenalmondsparrowgrassagenusofherbsbirdnestingingrassbelfrebelltowerbellbridegroomawomanisjustoramanisjust,oraboutabouttobemarriedtobemarriedmuskratalargerat-likeanimalalargemuskdeer(Algonquian:musquash)woodchuckanorthAmericangoatanorthAmerican(Algonquian:otchek)marmot.从下面的逆构词确定本来项目的形式。asset:burgle:enthuse:greed:hush:automate:donate:escalate:homesick:peddle:diagnose:tuit: amusing:(n)loaf: self-destruct:attrit:hairdress:emote:drowse:frivol:9.确定下列词语的直接语源。 (例如，"meaning”的直接语源是法语，尽管它更远的来源是拉丁语。)air: barbecue:bungalow:cola:gusto:Babel:buffalo:cocoa:costume:ill: mule:decreed:revolution:(n)benevolent:lie: topic:subject:theme:wind:datum:.把下列词语进行分类，分出借词(LW)、混合借词(LB)、转移借词(LS)、翻译借词(LT):boobytrap,coconut,loanword,monk,firewater,freeverse,warpaint,yankee..如果有两个词缀-ly,一个生成形容词，另一个附在形容词后生成副词，我们能找到同时包含这两个词缀的词吗？.从下列词语中列出后面能加 -s的名词。epiphany,foot,hat,house,kitchen,ox,phenomenon,region,sheep,tomato.有没有这样的词缀，能附加在动词后面，不会产生或没有很特殊的意义，而且不会改变动词的类别？转自［英美者］-英语专业网站：2.irremovablem.dissyllabicinformaln.abnormalimpracticableo.unworkableinsensiblep.unwrittenintangibleq.unusualillogicalr.unthinkableirregulars.inhumandisproportionatet.irrelevantineffectiveu.uneditableinelasticv.immobileinductivew.illegalirrationalx.indiscreet.既然把语素定义为表达和内容关系的最小单位，那么它同时涉及了语言单位的语法方面和语义方面。一个语素可能就是一个音位，如I(我)；但是一个语素通常不是一个音位，如pig(猪)，整个单词是一个语素，也就是说pig是具独立的自由语素，但是音位是 /p/,/I/和/g/。.这段话中包含的功能词有： she,was,a,and,when,she,for,she,was,past,of,her,were,in,but,this,and,as,she,a,that,from,of,would,to,her,a,of,that,had,over,she,would,the,it,on,her,and,it和the。整段文章共有85个单诩词。其中功能词有40个。所以功能词在这段文章中所占的比例是40/85〜47%.(a)布龙菲尔德想把book,books,或者do,does,did,done这样的词自主理成同一个词的不同形式，而不是看作不同的词。 但另一方面，他又主张把John'shat中的John's当作一个词。同样theboy's(hat)也只是一个词。由此我们可以看出布龙菲尔德对词的定义， 是想要用同样的标准来涵盖不同的语言单位。(b)像和这样的语法冠词，传统认为是跟所修饰的中心语不同的词。但是布龙菲尔德不这样看，具体观点参看(a)。(c)因此，在定义词的范围时， 还考虑了语法标准。 例如，thekingofEngland's或者themanIsawyesterday这样一些用作前修饰的成分，布龙菲尔德把它们作为独立的长词处理。其实这种修饰词，是降级短语，根本就是不词。.bash：(b)at+m(ash)smash:(sm)ack+m(ash)glimmer:(g)leam+sh(immer)(e)clash:(cl)ap+cr(ash)⑴flare:(fl)ame+gl(immer)brunch:(br)eakfast+l(unch)motel:(mo)tor+ho(tel)transistor:(transfer+res(ister)medicare:(medi)cal+(care)workaholic:(work)+alco(holic)spam:(sp)iced+h(am)telethon:(tele)phone+mara(thon)(n)aerobicise:(aerobi)cs+exer(cise)chunnel:(ch)uckle+sn(ort)chortle:(ch)uckle+sn(ort)bit:(b)inary+dig(it)modem:(mo)dulator+(dem)odulatorguestimate:(guess)+es(timate)threepeat:(three)+re(peat).确定第一栏中词的正确历史语源，并在第二栏或第三栏中划出正确的单词。hangnail(由agnail,angnail变化而来) achingnailfemale(中古英语： femel,femelle)amale'scompanion(c)(中古英语：jardinalmande)gardenalmondshamefaced(由asparagus变化而来) boundbyshameJordanalmond(中古英语：jardinalmandegardenalmond⑴sparrowgrass(由asparagus变化而来) agenusofherbsbelfre(中古英语： berfrey)belltowerbridegroom (中古英语： bridegome)amanisjust,orabouttobemarried⑴muskrat(阿尔冈琴语系： musquash)alargerat-likeanimal⑴woodchuck (阿尔冈琴语系： otchek)anorthAmericanmarmot.(a)asset:(assets)burgle:(burglar)enthuse:(enthusiasm)greed:(greedy)hush:(husht)automate:(automation)donate:(donation)escalate:(escalator)homesick:(homesickness)peddle:(peddler)diagnose:(diagnosis)tuit:(intuition)amusing:(amuse)(n)loaf:(loafer)self-destruct:(self-destruction)attrit:(attrition)hairdress:(hairdresser)emote:(emotion)drowse:(drowsy)frivol:(frivolous)9.(a)air:中世纪英语barbecue:美洲西班牙bungalow:北印度语cola:源自非洲语言gusto:西班牙语Babel:圣经buffalo:意大利语cocoa:西班牙语costume:法语ill:中世纪英语mule:中世纪英语decreed:拉丁语revolution:中世纪英语(n)b