莫卡特斯中心-了解东京的土地利用：微观空间的力量（英）-2022.12-33正式版

JoeMcReynolds,“UnderstandingTokyo’sLandUse:ThePowerofMicrospaces,”MercatusWorkingPaper,MercatusCenteratGeorgeMasonUniversity,Arlington,VA,November2022.AbstractThispaperexplainshowhistory,economics,publicpolicy,andculturehavecombinedtomakeTokyoacityfullofmicrospacesandhowthosemicrospacesshapeTokyo’slandusepossibilities.Today’sTokyoisa“new”city,havingbeenlargelyrebuiltfromscratchafterwartimedevastation,anditslanduseisdeeplyshapedbythathistory.Asforregulation,Japan’scombinationofhierarchicalzoningandprogressivetaxationpoliciesencourageanentirelydifferentmixoflanduseinTokyo’surbancorethanwhatisfoundinmostAmericancities.Tokyo’spostwarprofusionofsmalllandownerscoexistsintensionwithitsmajorcorporateconglomerates,whichcombinerealestatedevelopmentwithcommuterrailwayinfrastructureandconsumerbusinessesonascaleunheardofintheUnitedStates.Whenambiguitiesanddisputesregardinglandusearise,inpracticetheyaremediatedoutsideofcourtroomsbylocalcitizen-governancebodiesandthepowerfulyetunder-resourcedTokyopolice,bothofwhichplayauniqueroleinthesecommunities.Byexploringthesecountervailingforcesandexplainingthemixofformalandinformalactorsshapingthem,thispaperaimstohelppolicymakers,researchers,andactivistsinAmerica’scitiesbetterunderstandwhatlessonscan(andcannot)bedrawnforAmericanurbanpolicyfromTokyo’smicrospaces.JELcodes:R14Keywords:LandusepatternsAuthorAffiliationandContactInformationJoeMcReynoldsAffiliatedResearcherKeioUniversityAlmazánArchitectureandUrbanStudiesLaboratoryjoemcreynolds714@AcknowledgmentsTheauthorisdeeplyindebtedtotheentireteamattheAlmazánLaboratoryatKeioUniversityfortheirsupportforthisproject,particularlyitsgraphics,aswellasAditiGorur,withoutwhosepatienceandbeliefthisworkwouldnothavebeenpossible.©2022byJoeMcReynoldsandtheMercatusCenteratGeorgeMasonUniversityAllstudiesintheMercatusWorkingPaperserieshavefollowedarigorousprocessofacademicevaluation,including(exceptwhereotherwisenoted)atleastonedouble-blindpeerreview.WorkingPaperspresentanauthor’sprovisionalfindings,which,uponfurtherconsiderationandrevision,arelikelytoberepublishedinanacademicjournal.TheopinionsexpressedinMercatusWorkingPapersaretheauthor’sanddonotrepresentofficialpositionsoftheMercatusCenterorGeorgeMasonUniversity.UnderstandingTokyo’sLandUse:ThePowerofMicrospacesJosephMcReynoldsIntroductionTokyoiswidelyconsideredtobeoneoftheworld’sbestfunctioningmetropolises.Thankstoitslowcrimerates,world-leadingtransportationnetwork,andaffordablerents,Japan’scapitalhasconsistentlybeenrankedamongthemostlivablecitiesworldwide,eventhroughperiodsofeconomiccrisisandnaturaldisaster.Forurbanistsandtravelersalike,Tokyostandsoutasanaspirationalidealofwhatacitycanbe;itsgleamingcommercialcityscapesanditstranquilresidentialneighborhoodseachinspiretheirownsenseofwonder.Despitethesheerscaleofthecity,Tokyoisstrikingforitsprofusionofintimateandidiosyncraticmicrospaces,rangingfromtensofthousandsofcozymicrobarsandrestaurantstothetinymom-and-popshopsthatoccupythegroundfloorsofmanytraditionalhouses.Someareassmallas5squaremeters,littlemorethanalcoveshiddenintherecessesofTokyo’slargerurbanenvironment.ManymicrospacesinTokyoarecommercial,butothersareusedaspublicorresidentialspace—infact,oneoftheirfundamentalcharacteristicsistheirflexibility,allowingthemtobeconvertedbetweenuseswithrelativeeaseastimepasses.Havingsomanymicrospacesacrossthecityavailableataffordablerentsenablesanearlylimitlessvarietyofhighlypersonalandoftenexperimentalbusinessesthatcouldn’texistatlargerscales,resultinginvibranturbanlifethatoffersastarkcontrasttotheincreasinghomogenizationanddisplacementseenincitiessuchasSanFranciscoandNewYork.1Forabook-lengthtreatmentofNewYork’srecentevolution,seeJeremiahMoss,VanishingNewYork:HowaGreatCityLostItsSoul(NewYorkCity:DeyStreetBooks,2017).3However,ifoneseekstomovebeyondtheawedgazeofthetouristandbegintotreatTokyo’smicrospacesasanobjectofstudy,askingpointedquestionsaboutwhyandhowtheyexist,thingsquicklybecometrickier.InformationaboutTokyo’slandusepracticesinEnglishislimited,andtheinternationalpress’sreportingonthecityisawashwithorientaliststereotypesthattreatthecityasanoutgrowthofineffableJapaneseculturalpractices.Thisunfortunatestateofaffairsdeniesurbanpolicyresearchersanopportunitytodrawlessonsfromwhatisarguablytheworld’spremiermegacity.Tokyo’surbandevelopmentdefiesbotheasycategorizationandthetraditionalbattlelinesofurbanpoliticsinAmerica;byexaminingitsmicrospaces,wecanglimpsenewandexcitingpossibilitiesforurbanpolicyinourownlocalcontexts.2Thispaperaimstoexplainhowhistory,economics,publicpolicy,andculturehaveallcombinedtomakeTokyoacityfullofmicrospaces,aswellashowthosemicrospacesshapeTokyo’slandusepossibilitiesinturn.3Architecturallyspeaking,today’sTokyoisa“new”city,havingbeenlargelyrebuiltfromscratchafterthedevastationofWorldWarII,anditslanduseisdeeplyshapedbythathistoricalcontext.Insomerespects,Tokyo’sresultingpostwardevelopmentpathhasmoreincommonwithlow-incomeinformalneighborhoodsinIndiaorNigeriathantheglobalcitiesofAmericaorEurope.4Meanwhile,intherealmofregulation,Japan’scombinationofhierarchicalzoningandprogressivetaxationpoliciesencouragesanAbriefmethodologicalnote:muchoftheresearchforthispaperiscontainedinourlaboratory’snewbook,JorgeAlmazán,JoeMcReynolds,andNaokiSaito,EmergentTokyo:DesigningtheSpontaneousCity(Novato,CA:OroEditions,2022),andourresearchmethodologyincludeseverythingfromextensivefieldworktoreviewsofJapaneseurbanistliteratureandTokyoMetropolitanGovernmentofficialrecords.ThegraphicsinthispaperweregeneratedlargelyusinggeospatiallandusedatasupplieddirectlytothelaboratorybytheTokyoMetropolitanGovernment,whichwerethencombinedwitharchitecturalsurveys.OnecommonquestionthatarisesiswhetherTokyoisuniquewithinJapan.Inshort:some,butnotall,ofthecausalfactorsdiscussedherearealsopresentinotherJapanesecities,“Tokyourbanism”and“Japaneseurbanism”areoverlappingbutdistinctideas,andhardboundariesaredifficulttodraw.Atanyrate,thispaperisconcernedspecificallywithunderstandingTokyo,ratherthanwithJapaneseurbanpolicywritlarge.MatiasEchanoveandRahulSrivastava,“WhenTokyoWasaSlum,”RockefellerFoundation’sInformalCityDialogues,August1,2013,/informalcity/entry/when-tokyo-was-a-slum.4entirelydifferentmixoflanduseinTokyo’surbancorethanwhatisfoundinmostAmericancities.5Thecity’spostwartraditionofsmalllandownerscoexistsintensionwithitsmajorcorporateconglomerates,whichoperatethemajorityofthecity’scommuterrailwaylines.Farfromstickingtotransport,theirmodusoperandicombinesrealestatedevelopmentwithrailwayinfrastructureandconsumerbusinessesonascaleunheardofintheUnitedStates.6Andwhenambiguitiesanddisputesregardinglandusearise,inpracticetheyaremediatedoutsideofcourtroomsbybothlocalcitizen-governancebodiesandthepowerfulyetunder-resourcedTokyoMetropolitanPoliceDepartment,anarrangementthatreflectstheuniquerolethatlocalpoliceplayinTokyocommunities.7Byexploringthesecountervailingforcesandexplainingthemixofformalandinformalactorsthatshapethem,wehopetohelppolicymakers,researchers,andactivistsinAmerica’scitiesbetterunderstandwhatlessonscan(andcannot)bedrawnforAmericanurbanpolicyfromTokyo’smicrospaces.SomeaspectsofTokyo’sapproachtolandusecouldbetransplantedwholesaletoAmericancitieswithobviousbenefits,ifonlythepoliticalwillexisted;otherswouldbenearlyimpossibletoreplicateoutsideoftheiroriginalcontext.Nevertheless,suchpossibilitiescanonlybeexploredifAmerica’surbanistshaveconcreteinformationaboutTokyotocompareandcontrastwiththeirownlocalsituations.Forzoning,seeJapanInternationalCooperationAgency,UrbanPlanningSysteminJapan,2nded.,March2007,20,.vn/Images/editor/files/Trunghan/2020/Urban%20Planning%20System%20in%20Japan_EN.pdf.Forinheritancetaxpolicy,seeNationalTaxAgency,TheTrajectoryofInheritanceTaxPolicyOver100Years,April2005,https://www.nta.go.jp/about/organization/ntc/kenkyu/backnumber/journal/01/pdf/03.pdf(inJapanese).TakahikoSaito,“JapanesePrivateRailwayCompaniesandTheirBusinessDiversification,”JapanRailway&TransportReview(January1997):2–9,https://www.ejrcf.or.jp/jrtr/jrtr10/pdf/f02_sai.pdf.Formoreinformation,seeFrankLeishman,“Koban:NeighbourhoodPolicinginContemporaryJapan,”Policing:AJournalofPolicyandPractice1no.2(2007):196−202,/policing/article-abstract/1/2/196/1561516.5TokyoIsaCityShapedbyItsPostwarHistoryTokyowasalmostentirelydestroyedtwiceinthe20thcentury—in1923bythefiresoftheGreatKantōEarthquake,andthenduringWorldWarIIbyAlliedfirebombing.Asalargelywoodencityimmolatedtwiceover,therearefewbuildingsstillstandingfromeithertheprewarMeijimodernizationperiodorthemoredistantEdo-erapast.ThereconstructioneffortsofTokyo’searlypostwarperiodformedanenduringfoundationthatdefinesmuchofTokyoeventoday,includingmanyofitsmicrospaces,andtheyarewhereanyefforttounderstandthecity’slandusemustbegin.AfterthedevastationofWorldWarII,enactinganall-encompassingmasterplanforTokyo’sreconstructionwasanorganizationalandfinancialimpossibility.AstheJapanesegovernmentattemptedtorebuildtheirruinedcapitalcityafterthewar,theydraftedbutsubsequentlydiscardedacomprehensivereconstructionplan,concludingthattheylackedthebudgettocarryitout.8Whatlimitedfundswereavailableendeduplargelyallocatedtowardrestoringthecity’srailandroadtransportationgrid,whichconnectsTokyoradiallytoitsvastsuburbsacrosstheKantōplain.Beyondthis,thecityembarkedoncitizen-led,small-scaleredevelopmentsimplybecauseithadnochoice.Inareaswhereneitherthegovernmentnorthecountry’srealestateandtransportationmegacorporationscouldproperlyfundreconstructionefforts,wholeneighborhoodsinsteadrapidlyrebuiltthemselvesasbesttheycould.9AllacrossTokyo,familybusinessesandindividualresidentsscrapedtogethertheirmeagerresourcestoerectsmallbuildingsonmodestplotsofurbanland,relyingonlittlemorethantheircollectivegritandinventiveness.Theseneighborhoodswerenotinitiallyplanned,ForanintroductiontoJapan’spostwarurbandevelopment,seeAndréSorensen,TheMakingofUrbanJapan:CitiesandPlanningfromEdototheTwenty-FirstCentury(NewYork:Routledge,2002).EchanoveandSrivastava,“WhenTokyoWasaSlum.”6perse—theyemergedfromthebottomup,andtheirramshackle,spontaneousspiritcanstillbefelttodaywhenwalkingTokyo’sbackstreets.Theinhabitantsoftheseneighborhoodshadtheirscattershotpropertyrightsregularizedandformalizedbythegovernmentafterthefact,resultinginanunusuallylargeshareofTokyo’surbancoreconsistingtodayofplotsownedbyindividualworking-classhomeowners.Thisapproachwasadoptedoutofharshnecessity,buttheresultingneighborhoodshaveovertimedevelopedastrikingcharm:intimatetownscapeswithexceptionalvitalityandlivability,featuringafine-grainedurbanfabricmadeupofnumeroussmallbuildings.Thesedenselow-riseneighborhoodsoftenhavenarrow,labyrinthinestreetsandlackpublicspace,buttheirbuiltenvironmentshaveprovenunusuallyflexibleandadaptable.10Intherealmofcommerce,meanwhile,“blackmarkets”(闇市oryami-ichi)fullofmicroentrepreneurssprunguparoundTokyo’smajortrainstationsamidthecity’spostwarrationing.11Theblackmarketsrapidlybecameadrivingforceofthelocalconsumereconomy,growingtoanestimatedsizeof60,000merchantstallsacrossthecity.12Despitetheominoustoneofthenameandtheirhardscrabblesurroundings,Tokyo’sblackmarketeerswereforthemostpartsimplyordinarymerchantsattemptingtomakealivingamidwidespreadhardship.Theysuppliedeverythingfromfoodtodailyhouseholdnecessities,althoughorganizedcrimeandsexworkwerealsopresent.EffortstoridTokyo’stransithubsofblack-marketstallsbeganin1949,throughthepassageofalawshuttingthemdown.13Crucially,however,thesemeasuresdidnottreatblack-MoreinformationonthiscanbefoundinHeideImai’sexcellentTokyoRoji:TheDiversityandVersatilityofAlleysinaCityinTransition(NewYork:Routledge,2017).MasazakuIshigure(石榑督和),“戦後東京と闇市[PostwarTokyoandtheBlackMarkets],”(Tokyo:KajimaInstitutePublishing,2016).EdwardSeidensticker,TokyoRising:TheCitySincetheGreatEarthquake(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1991),153.Knownastherotenseirirei(露店整理令).7marketmerchantsasacriminalelementtobepushedoutofsociety,butratherasagroupworthyofreasonableaccommodationthatcouldbeintegratedintoplansforthenextstageofthecity’spostwardevelopment.Underthenewlaw,manyformerblack-marketmerchantswererelocatedfromoutsidetrainstationstoothernearbyareas,wheretheywerehandednewlyconstructedstallsunderacommonroofontinyplotsoflandtheynowformallyowned.Tocatertothechangingneedsofthetimes,fromthelate1940sonward,thesemarketstallsgraduallybegantotransitionintoofferingsnacksanddrinks—thebirthofTokyo’snow-iconicyokochōalleywaysfulloflittlebarsandrestaurants(discussedindetaillater).14ThecityalsobegantakingfulleradvantageofthedormantundertrackspacescreatedbyTokyo’selevatedrailways,allowingformerblack-marketmerchantsaswellasreturneesfromJapan’slostoverseasimperialcoloniestoconvertthemintocommercialspaces.15DuringJapan’srapideconomicgrowthperiod,runningfromthelate1950sthroughthe1970s,thecitygrewdramaticallyintermsofbothpopulationandwealth.Developersbeganconvertinglandplotsaroundstationsintolargeofficeandcommercialbuildingswheneverpossible,butthefragmentedownershipoftheseformerblackmarketeers’buildingsmaderedevelopmentdifficult:propertyrightsinpostwarJapanareincrediblystrong,andinmanycasesnearlyeveryproprietorinacomplexwithhundredsofstallswouldhavetobeconvincedtoselltheirlotinorderforredevelopmenttobegin.Duringthesubsequent“bubbleera,”thismeantthatsomeofthemostvaluablerealestateintheworldwasoccupiedbylittleramshacklepubs,SeeInoKenji,ed.,TokyoYami-ichiKōbōshi(Tokyo:Sōfūsha,1999,1sted.1978);MatsudairaMakoto,Yam-iichiMaboroshinoGaidobukku(Tokyo:ChikumaShobō,1995);HatsudaKohei,“SengoTokyoniokerubarakkunomiyagainokeiseitohenyō:sensaifukkō-ki,kōdoseichō-kiniokerueki-maesaikaihatsunikansurukōsatsu,”JournalofArchitectureandPlanning,no.579(May2004):105−10;HatsudaKohei,“SengoTokyonomaakettonitsuite:Yami-ichitosenzennoko-uriichiba,rotentonokankeinikansurukōsatsu,”JournalofArchitectureandPlanning76,no.667(September2011):1729–34.TakayukiKishii,“UseandAreaManagementofRailwayUnder-ViaductSpacesandUndergroundSpacesnearStations,”JapanRailway&TransportReview,no.69(March2017):7.8suchasinShinjuku’sfamousGoldenGaimicrobardistrict,ratherthancorporateofficespace(figure1).Developers,attimesworkingintandemwithorganizedcrime,exertedenormouspressuretoforcelandownersout,insomecasesevenresortingtoarsonandextortion.16Theyokochōalleywaysandotherblack-market-derivedcommercialdistrictsthathavesurvivedtothepresentdayaretheonesthathavesuccessfullydevelopedlayersofeconomic,regulatory,andpracticalinsulationthatenablethemtoresistsuchpressures.Figure1:Shinjuku’sGoldenGaiSources:VisualizationgeneratedusingTokyoMetropolitanGovernmentgeographicalinformationsystem(GIS)data(2020).AllgraphicsadaptedfromJorgeAlmazán,JoeMcReynolds,andNaokiSaito,EmergentTokyo:DesigningtheSpontaneousCity(Novato,CA:OroEditions,2022).MegumiKinugawa(衣川恵),“日本のバブル[Japan’sBubble]”(NihonKeizaiHyoronsha:2002).9Astheyearsprogressed,Tokyo’spostwarspontaneitygavewaytomoremethodicalplanningmeasuresdesignedtoimposeatleastsomedegreeoforderonthecity’sdevelopment.Indoingso,however,authoritiesmadelittleefforttoalterthecharacterofthesepostwarresidentialandcommercialneighborhoods.Inmanycases,theystillretainnotonlytheiroriginalarchitecturalformbutalsotheirclassiccommunalatmosphere.Tokyoisoftendismissedbyhistoricalpreservationistsasacitywithlittleinthewayoflong-survivingarchitecture,butwhenitcomestoitspostwarurbanheritage,thereisanargumenttobemadethatTokyoisactuallyagloballeader.AvisitortoNewYorkwhowantstoexperiencethegrittyyetveneratedurbansubculturesandcounterculturesofthecity’s1960sand1970s,andnotmerelyviewtheoldbuildingsthatoncehousedthem,willlargelycomeawayempty-handed.17Bycontrast,Tokyoisfilledwithclassicneighborhoodsandnightlifedistrictswheretherhythmsoflifefromhalfacenturyagoarestilldeeplyfelt.Thousandsof“oldTokyo”businessesacrossdozensofneighborhoodsstilloperatemuchastheyhavefordecades,andtheydosoasamatterofsimplecontinuityratherthanasanexerciseinretrokitsch.Forurbanistsabroad,theareasofTokyodefinedbytheirpostwarevolutionthusofferanalternativeparadigmofurbanplanning—onewhichcombineslightplanningfromaboveandself-organizingemergencefrombelow.Ofcourse,lightplanningbringsarangeofchallengesaswell;theseclassicneighborhoodshavehistoricallylaggedtherestofthecityinopenspacesandinfrastructureandhavebeenlesspreparedformajornaturaldisasters.SomeTokyoscholarssuchasMatiasEchanovehavegonesofarastoarguethatthechallengesfacingtheseareashavehistoricallyoverlappedmorewithissuesfacingtheinformalurbancommunitiesofMumbaiorMoss,VanishingNewYork.10NairobithanwiththedevelopmentpathsofParisorRome.18Despitethesedifficulties,thecombinedeffectofdecadesofincrementaltransformationsonTokyo’sfine-grainedpostwarurbanfabrichasenabledthecreationofacityscapewithanunparalleleddegreeofadaptabilityandspontaneity.AFieldGuidetoTokyo’sMicrospacesWhenwesaythatTokyoisunusuallyfilledwithmicrospaces,whatexactlydowemean?Tokyo’smicroscalelandusecomesinfourmainvarieties:yokochōalleyways,dual-useresidences,undertrackinfills,andmultitenantzakkyobuildings.Eachtypeofmicrospacehasitsownhistory,regulatoryframework,andlandusecontext,butthereisadegreeoffungibilitybetweentheircommercialuses;amicrobusinessthatresidesinayokochōalleywaycouldoftenjustaseasilyoperateoutofazakkyobuilding.ThescaleofTokyo’soverallmicrospaceecosystemisthuseverybitasimportantastherisingandfallingpopularityofanygiventypeofmicrospace.Tokyo’sbest-knownmicrospacesarearguablythelanewaycommercialclustersknownasyokochō—warrensoflively,microscalebarsandrestaurantscenteredontinyalleysandbackstreets,oftenintheshadowofoneofthecity’sestablishedcommercialdistrictsortransitcenters.19Ayokochōbarmayhaveasfewastwoorthreeseats;enteringonecanfeelasintimateasbeinginvitedintosomeone’slivingroom.EchanoveandSrivastava,“WhenTokyoWasaSlum.”Formoreonyokochōinthiscontext,seeJorgeAlmazánandRumiOkazaki,“AMorphologicalStudyontheYokochōBarAlleys:UrbanMicro-SpatialityinTokyo,”JournalofArchitectureandPlanning78,no.689(2013):1515–22;andJorgeAlmazánandNakajimaYoshinori,“UrbanMicro-SpatialityinTokyo:CaseStudyonSixYokochōBarDistricts,”inAdvancesinSpatialPlanning,ed.JaroslavBurian(Rijeka,Croatia:InTech,2010).11AswithsomanyotheruniqueaspectsofTokyo’smoderncityscape,yokochōoriginatedfromtheblackmarketsthatappearedaroundmajortrainstationsafterJapan’swartimedefeat.20Manysmall-scaleblack-marketentrepreneurseventuallybecamesquatters,buildingmakeshiftstructuresonanyunoccupiedspacetheycouldfind.Attheendoftheblack-marketperiod,thesespaceswereregularizedandoftenrelocatedaspartofthecity’sredevelopment,withthousandsofformerblack-marketsellersgainingformalpropertyrightstonewspacesincrampedcommercialwarrens.Illegalmarketstallstransformedintobarsandrestaurants(andsometimesbrothelsandgamblingparlors),andthroughthegovernment’srelocationpoliciesthesemicrocommercedistrictsshiftedoutwardfromthecity’sstationfrontsandintosurroundingneighborhoods.Becauseoftheirgrittypastintheblackmarkets,yokochōlongheldapopularreputationasbeingold-fashioned,unsafe,crowded,orpopulatedwithdubiouscharacters.Increasingly,however,yokochōarewidelybelovedasprimesettingsofinformalpubliclife,owingtotheirsmallscaleandrelaxedyetintimateatmosphere.InTokyo,thereisagrowinginterestinyokochōasaphenomenon,notonlyamongarchitectsandurbanistsbutalsoamongordinarycitizens.Theyareregularlyfeaturedinprintandonlinemediaaseither“unknown”spacesofinteresttobe“explored,”beckoningthecity’sresidentsto“discover”the“dark”or“deep”sideofTokyo,oralternatelyasnostalgicrelicsoftheShōwaperiod(1926to1989,thereignoftheeponymousShōwaemperor),cateringtoaburgeoningdesireamongTokyo’syouthforatasteof“Shōwaretro”atmosphereandaesthetics.21Formoreontheblackmarketsasageneralphenomenon,seeKoheiHatsudaetal.,“TheNationwideFormationandSpreadofYami-ichi(BlackMarket)AfterWorldWarIIandGovernment’sInvolvements,”ArchitecturalInstituteofJapan82,no.733(2017).Forsomeexamples,seeFujikiTDCandKawakamiBuraboo,MaboroshiiYami-ichiwoyuku,Tokyo-noUra-roji“futokoro”(Shoku-kikōMirion,2002).AlsoseetheseJapanesewebsites:TokyoDeepAnnai,;InformationDesignLab,http://asanoken.jugem.jp;Kōji,roji-ura,yokochō,http://yaplog.jp/emjp;andTōkyō12Asmuchasyokochōaddcharactertothecity,fromastrictlyeconomicperspectivetheyareoftenalow-rise,economicallyinefficientuseofsomeofthemostvaluablerealestateontheplanet(figure2).Assuch,theyarefrequenttargetsforredevelopmentpressure,andoverthedecadesmanyhavebeenreplacedwithhigh-riseofficetowersandothersuchcorporatedevelopments.TheyokochōthathavesurvivedoftenrelynotonlyonJapan’sstrongpropertyrightsregimebutalsoonvariousmeansofpreventingindividuallandownersfromdefectingandsellingtodevelopers.Methodsofself-preservationrangefrompoolinglandownershipinanonprofitorganizationtofilingamutuallybindingnondevelopmentpact(akenchikukyōteior“buildingagreement”)withthecitygovernmenttolobbyingtohavethemselvesdeclaredasa“disaster-pronearea,”whichwouldinturnautomaticallyimposedevelopmentlimits.22Tokyo’sundertrackinfillssharesomeofthesameblack-markethistoryasitsyokochō,butmanyhaveprewaroriginsaswell.Tokyohasbeensewntogetherbyadensenetworkofrailinfrastructureformorethanacentury,withtrainstationsservingasbothgatewaysbetweendifferentareasandcentersofcommercialactivityintheirownright.TheYamanoteLine,Tokyo’selevatedlooprailway,formsthebackboneofthecity’surbangeography.InsidetheYamanoteLine,thecity’straininfrastructureconsistsmostlyofsubways;outsideit,abovegroundcommuterrailwaysstretchoutradiallyfromYamanoteLinestationstowardthecity’smanyresidentialsuburbs.Toavoidthedangerandtrafficcongestionthatresultswhennoshōtengaiwoarukō,;forthemedianoticingthepopularityoftheyokochōphenomenonamongyoungstersandforeigners,seeTakanoTomohiro,“Wakamono,gaikokujinnimoninki,‘yokochō’buumuhaitsumadetsuzukunoka,”Newsweek,Japanedition,August25,2017.ThereislittlediscussionofkenchikukyōteiinEnglish,butthisarticleoffersausefulexplanationoftheconcept:KiyoshiHasegawa,“LawandCommunityinJapan:TheRoleofLegalRulesinSuburbanNeighborhoods,”SocialScienceJapanJournal12,no.1(Summer2009):71−99,/ssjj/article/12/1/71/1680605.Forthenonprofitorganizationroute,see“Mr.KoichiroMikuri,”ShibuyaCultureProject,2018,/keyperson/?wovn=jp&id=152.13Figure2:AYokochōbytheTrainTracksintheWestTokyoNeighborhoodofNishi-OgikuboSources:VisualizationgeneratedusingTokyoMetropolitanGovernmentgeographicalinformationsystem(GIS)data(2020).AllgraphicsadaptedfromJorgeAlmazán,JoeMcReynolds,andNaokiSaito,EmergentTokyo:DesigningtheSpontaneousCity(Novato,CA:OroEditions,2022).railwayscrossroadwaysatthesamegrade,somesectionsoftrackareelevated,particularlyinthesuburbs.Tokyo’soldestundertrackinfillspacesoriginatedfromelevatedrailwaysbuiltbeforeWorldWarII,withtheearliestexamplebeingthestretchoftheYamanoteloopbetweenHamamatsuchōandUenostationsbuiltbetween1910and1914.23Manyoftheseelevatedrailwayswereoccupiedbyblackmarketsafterthewar,andsomewerealsogivenovertoTakayukiKishii,“UseandAreaManagementofRailwayUnder-ViaductSpacesandUndergroundSpacesnearStations,”JapanRailway&TransportReview69(March2017):7.14returneesfromJapan’slostimperialterritoriestoop