农经专业资源与环境经济学全册配套完整课件

农经专业资源与环境经济学全册配套完整课件Chapter1VisionsofTheFutureContents:1.Introduction2.Thebasicpessimistmodel3.Thebasicoptimistmodel4.Theroadahead5.Issues1.Introduction1.1TheSelf-extinctionPremise1.2TheUseofModels1.3ThinkingAboutTheFuture1.1TheSelf-extinctionPremiseThomasMalthusforesawthatpopulationgrowthwouldoutstripthegrowthoffoodsupply,resultinginstarvationanddeath,ifreproductionwasencouraged.1.1TheSelf-extinctionPremiseModernecologistshavesuggestedthatecologicaldisruptionwouldoccurwithdisastrousconsequencesforhumanityifthe“carryingcapacity”（承载能力）ofenvironmentisexceededwidespread.1.1TheSelf-extinctionPremiseEconomistshavebeenconcernedwithtopicssuchasexhaustibleresources（可耗竭资源）andpollution.Now,we’vecometobetterunderstandtherelationshipbetweenhumanityandtheenvironmentandhowthatrelationshipaffects,andisaffectedby,economicandpoliticalinstitutions.1.2TheUseofModelsIneconomics,asinmostotherdisciplines,weusemodelstoillustratecomplexsubjects,suchasrelationshipsbetweentheeconomyandtheenvironment.Inusingthesemodels,weshouldalsobesensitivetotheirlimitations.Limitationsofmodels:Modelsaresimplifiedcharacterizationsofreality.Modelsmayyieldconclusionsthataredeadwrong.Modelsareusefulabstractionsthatshouldalwaysbeviewedwithsomeskepticism.1.3ThinkingAboutTheFutureThebasicpessimistmodel(悲观模型)Thebasicoptimistmodel(乐观模型)2.TheBasicPessimistModel2.1ConclusionsofPessimistModel2.2TheNatureoftheModel2.1ConclusionsofPessimistModelThefirstsuggeststhatwithinatimespanoflessthan100yearswithnomajorchangeinthephysical,economic,orsocialrelationshipsthathavetraditionallygovernedworlddevelopment,societywillrunoutofthenonrenewableresourcesonwhichtheindustrialbasedepends.Whentheresourceshavebeendepleted,aprecipitouscollapseoftheeconomicsystemwillresultdecreasedfoodproduction,andadeclineinpopulationasthedeathratesoars.Thesecondconclusionisthatpiecemealapproachestosolvingtheindividualproblemswillnotbesuccessful.Thethirdsuggeststhatovershootandcollapsecanbeavoidedonlybyanimmediatelimitonpopulationandpollution,aswellascessationofeconomicgrowth.2.2TheNatureoftheModelThedominantcharacteristicofthemodelisexponentialgrowth（指数增长）coupledwithfixedlimits.Exponentialgrowthinanyvariableimpliesthattheabsoluteincreasesinthatvariablewillbegreaterandgreatereachyear.Thehighertherateofgrowthinresourceconsumption,thefasterafixedstockofitwillbeexhausted.2.2TheNatureoftheModelSeveralresourcesareheldinfixedsupplybythemodel.Thisbasicstructureofthemodelisinsomewaysreinforcedandinsomewaystemperedbythepresenceofnumerouspositiveandnegativefeedbackloops.Positivefeedbackloops(正反馈回路)arethoseinwhichsecondaryeffectstendtoreinforcethebasictrend.Anegativefeedbackloop(负反馈回路)isself-limitingratherthanself-reinforcing.3.TheBasicOptimistModel3.1ConclusionsoftheOptimistModel3.2TheNatureoftheModel3.1ConclusionsoftheOptimistModelTheSimonvisionofthefutureconcludes:Thestandardoflivinghasarisenalongwiththesizeoftheworld’spopulationsincethebeginningofrecordedtime.Andwithincreasesinincomeandpopulationhavecomelesssevereshortages,lowercosts,andanincreasedavailabilityofresources,includingaclearerenvironmentandgreateraccesstonaturalrecreationareas.Andthereisnoconvincingreasonwhythesetrendstowardabetterlife,andtowardlowerpricesforrawmaterials,shouldnotcontinueindefinitely.3.2TheNatureoftheModelFirst,historicallyhumanresourcefulnesshasalwaysovercomebothscarcitiesofresourcesandenvironmentalproblemsassociatedwitheconomicactivity.Second,nocompellingreasonwhythosetrendscannotcontinueindefinitelyintothefuture.3.2TheNatureoftheModelSeveralobservationstobolsterSimon’sargument.Foodproductionisnotlikelytobealimitforincreasedagrarianoragro-production.Naturalresourceshavenotbecomemorescarceovertime.ApparentshortagesareduemoretoproblemswithhumanbehaviorthantoanyphysicallackofavailabilityPollutionlevelshavedeclinedaspopulationandincomesincreased.3.2TheNatureoftheModelWhatarethedrivingforcesbehindtheseoutcomes?Simonsuggeststhatoureconomicandpoliticalsystemsrespondtoscarcityinwayswhicheliminateordiminishitsimpact.4.TheRoadAheadThedifferencesbetweenthepessimistandoptimistmodeldependonhowhumanbehaviorisperceived.Ifintensifyingpressureontheenvironmentresultsinabehavioralresponsewhichintensifiesthepressures,pessimismisjustified.Ifthehumanresponseseithercurrentlyarereducingthosepressuresorcouldbereformedsoastoreducethosepressures,thenoptimismmaybejustified.4.TheRoadAheadThefieldofenvironmentalandnaturalresourceeconomicshasbecomeanimportantsourceofideasforcopingwithenvironmentalproblems.Notonlydoesthefieldprovideafirmbasisforunderstandingthehumansourcesofenvironmentalproblems;thisunderstandingprovidesafirmfoundationforcraftingspecificsolutionstotheseproblems.5.IssuesIstheproblemcorrectlyconceptualizedasexponentialgrowthwithfixed,immutableresourcelimits?Doestheearthhaveafinitecarryingcapacity?Iftheselimitsdoexist,havetheybeenmeasuredcorrectlyor,asSimonargues,hastheBeyondtheLimitsteambeenrathermyopicinthewaytheytreatresources?Howcanthecarrying-capacityconceptbeoperationalized?Docurrentlevelsofeconomicactivityexceedthecarryingcapacity?5.IssuesHowdoestheeconomicsystemrespondtoscarcities?Doestheprocessinvolvemainlypositivefeedbackloops?Woulditintensifyorameliorateanyinitialscarcities?Istheovershoot-and–collapsesyndromeanaccurateportrayalofthefuture?Whatistheroleofthepoliticalsystemincontrollingtheseproblems?Inwhatcircumstancesisgovernmentinterventionnecessary?Isthisinterventionuniformlybenign,orcanitmakethesituationworse?Whatisanappropriaterolefortheexecutive,legislative,andjudicialbranches?5.IssuesManyenvironmentalproblemsinvolveaconsiderabledegreeofuncertaintyabouttheseverityoftheproblemandtheeffectivenessofpossiblesolutions.Canoureconomicandpoliticalinstitutionsrespondtothisuncertaintyinreasonableways?5.IssuesCantheeconomicandpoliticalsystemsworktogethertoeradicatepovertywhilerespectingourobligationstofuturegenerations?Ordoesourobligationtofuturegenerationsinevitablyconflictwiththedesiretoraisethelivingstandardsofthosecurrentlyinabsolutepoverty?Canshort-termandlong-termgoalsbeharmonized?How?Whatdoestheneedtopreservetheenvironmentimplyaboutthefutureofeconomicactivityintheindustrializednations?Inthelessindustrializednations?Furtherreading:TheLimitstoGrowthBeyondtheLimitsOurCommonFutureChapter2ValuingTheEnvironment:Concepts1.IntroductionMaincontents:Developthegeneralconceptualframeworkusedineconomicstoapproachenvironmentalproblems.Examiningtherelationshipbetweenhumanactions,asmanifestedthroughtheeconomicsystem,andtheenvironmentalconsequencesofthoseactions.Establishcriteriaforjudgingthedesirabilityoftheoutcomesofthisrelationship.2.TheHumanEnvironmentalRelationship2.1TheEnvironmentasanAsset2.2TheEconomicApproach2.1TheEnvironmentasanAssetIneconomicstheenvironmentisviewedasacompositeasset（复合资产）thatprovidesavarietyofservices.ProvidestheeconomywithrawmaterialsandenergyAlsoprovidesservicesdirectlytoconsumers,suchasair,water,amenities,etc.2.1TheEnvironmentasanAssetIftheenvironmentisdefinedbroadlyenough,therelationshipbetweentheenvironmentandtheeconomicsystemcanbeconsideredaclosedsystem.Aclosedsystem（封闭系统）isoneinwhichnoinputsarereceivedfromoutsidethesystemandnooutputsaretransferredoutsidethesystem.Anopensystem（开放系统）isoneinwhichthesystemimportsorexportsmatterorenergy.2.1TheEnvironmentasanAssetThefirstlawofthermodynamics（热力学第一定律）Thelawstatesthatenergyandmattercannotbecreatedordestroyedinaclosedsystem.Thelawimpliesthatthemassofmaterialsflowingintotheeconomicsystemfromtheenvironmenthastoeitheraccumulateintheeconomicsystemorreturntotheenvironmentaswaste.2.1TheEnvironmentasanAssetThesecondlawofthermodynamics（热力学第二定律）Thelawstatesthatentropy（熵）increases.Appliedtoenergyprocesses,thislawimpliesthatnoconversionfromoneformofenergytoanotheriscompletelyefficientandthattheconsumptionofenergyisanirreversibleprocess.Alsoimpliesthatintheabsenceofnewenergyinput,anyclosedsystemmusteventuallyuseupitsenergy.2.2TheEconomicApproachTwodifferenttypesofeconomicanalysiscanbeappliedtoincreaseourunderstandingoftherelationshipbetweentheeconomicsystemandtheenvironment.Positiveeconomics（实证经济学）attemptstodescribewhatis,whatwas,orwhatwillbeNormativeeconomics（规范经济学）dealswithwhatoughttobe.3.NormativeCriteriaforDecision-MakingEconomistssuggestthatactionshavebothbenefits（收益）andcosts（成本）.Ifthebenefitsexceedthecosts,thentheactionisdesirable.Ifthecostsexceedthebenefits,thentheactionisnotdesirable.IfB>C,thensupporttheaction,otherwiseopposetheactionIfB/C>1,supporttheactionotherwise,opposetheaction3.NormativeCriteriaforDecision-MakingHowtomeasurebenefitsandcosts?3.NormativeCriteriaforDecision-MakingBenefits

（收益）canbederivedfromthedemandcurveforthegoodorserviceprovidedbytheaction.Demandcurves（需求曲线）measurestheamountofaparticulargoodpeoplewouldbewillingtopurchaseatvariousprices.Figure2.2Figure2.33.NormativeCriteriaforDecision-MakingMeasuringtotalcosts（总成本）onthesamesetofaxesinvolveslogicsimilartomeasuringtotalbenefits.Allcostsshouldbemeasuredasopportunitycosts（机会成本）.Itisimportanttostressthatenvironmentalserviceshavecostseventhoughtheyareproducedwithoutanyhumaninput.Totalcostissimplythesumofthemarginalcosts（边际成本）.Figure2.43.NormativeCriteriaforDecision-MakingSincenetbenefit（净收益）isdefinedastheexcessofbenefitsovercosts,itfollowsthatnetbenefitisequaltothatportionoftheareaunderthedemandcurvewhichliesabovethesupplycurve.Figure2.53.NormativeCriteriaforDecision-MakingTheanalysiswehavecoveredsofarisveryusefulforthinkingaboutactionswheretimeisnotanimportantfactor.Howcanwemakechoiceswhenthebenefitsandcostsmayoccuratdifferentpointsintime?Inordertoincorporatetiming,thedecisionrulemustprovideawaytocomparethenetbenefitreceivedinoneperiodwiththenetbenefitreceivedinanother.Theconceptthatallowsthiscomparisoniscalledpresentvalue（现值）.3.NormativeCriteriaforDecision-MakingThepresentvalueofaone-timenetbenefitsreceivednyearsfromnowis

Thepresentvalueofastreamofnetbenefits{B0,…,Bn}receivedoveraperiodofnyearsiscomputedas

3.NormativeCriteriaforDecision-MakingItisnowpossibletoshowhowthisanalysiscanbeusedtoevaluateactions.Firstcalculatethepresentvalue（现值）ofnetbenefits（净收益）fromtheactionIfthepresentvalueisgreaterthanzero,theactionshouldbesupported.Otherwiseitshouldnot.4.FindingtheOptimalOutcomeThreestepsproceededbynormativeanalysis:Firstwewillidentifyanoptimal（最优的）outcome.Secondwewillattempttodiscerntheextenttowhichourinstitutionsproduceoptimaloutcomesand,wheredivergencesoccurbetweenactualandoptimaloutcomes,toattempttouncoverthebehavioralsourcesoftheproblems.Finallydesigningappropriatepolicysolutions.Examples:Considertherisingnumberofdepletedoceanfisheries.Depletedfisheriesnotonlyjeopardizeoceanicbiodiversity,butalsoposeathreattoboththeindividualswhomaketheirlivingfromtheseaandthecommunitiesthathavedependedonfishingtosupporttheirlocaleconomies.Howwouldaneconomistattempttounderstandandtoresolvethisproblem?Example:Thefirststepwouldinvolvedefiningtheoptimalstock（最优存量）ortheoptimalrateofharvest（最优捕捞率）ofthefishery.Thesecondstepwouldcomparethislevelwiththeactualstockandharvestlevels.Thethirdstepwouldreachthesolutions.4.1StaticEfficiencyThechiefnormativeeconomiccriterionforchoosingamongvariousallocationsoccurringatthesamepointintimeiscalledstaticefficiency（静态效率）.Anallocationofresourcesissaidtosatisfythestaticefficiencycriterionifthenetbenefitfromtheuseofthoseresourcesismaximized（最大化）bythatallocation.4.1StaticEfficiencyFirstEquimarginalPrinciple(the“EfficiencyEquimarginalPrinciple”)（第一等边际原理）:Netbenefitsaremaximizedwhenthemarginalbenefitsfromanallocationequalthemarginalcosts.ParetoOptimality（帕累托最优）:AllocationsaresaidtobeParetooptimalifnootherfeasibleallocationcouldbenefitsomepeoplewithoutanydeleteriouseffectsonatleastoneotherperson.4.2DynamicEfficiencyThetraditionalcriterionusedtofindanoptimalallocationwhentimeisinvolvediscalleddynamicefficiency（动态效率）.Anallocationofresourcesacrossntimeperiodssatisfiesthedynamicefficiencycriterionifitmaximizesthepresentvalueofnetbenefitsthatcouldbereceivedfromallthepossiblewaysofallocationthoseresourcesoverthenperiods.Furtherreading:A•

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弗里曼，环境与资源价值评估—理论与方法，中国人民大学出版社，2002Objectives&Requirements:UnderstandthehumanenvironmentalrelationshipGraspthenormativecriteriafordecision-makingandoptimaloutcomeUnderstandthemeaningof“staticefficiency”and“dynamicefficiency”Problems:Oneconvenientwaytoexpressthewillingness-to-payrelationshipbetweenpriceandquantityistousetheinversedemandfunction.Inaninversedemandfunction,thepriceconsumersarewillingtopayisexpressedasafunctionofthequantityavailableforsale.SupposetheinversedemandfunctionoraproductisP=80-q,andthemarginalcostofproducingitisMC=1q,wherePisthepriceoftheproductandqisthequantitydemandedand/orsupplied.Howmuchwouldbesuppliedinastaticefficientallocation?Whatwouldbethemagnitudeofthenetbenefits?Chapter3ValuingTheEnvironment:Methods1.IntroductionMainContents:ExaminethevaluationmethodsIdentifyanddiscussthevariousvaluationtechniquesthatareusedtovalueenvironmentalresources.Discussthestrategiesthatexistforusingeconomicstoprotecttheenvironmentwhenvaluationinformationcannotreliablybeobtained.2.ValuingBenefits2.1TypesofValues2.2ClassifyingValuationMethods2.3ValuingHumanLife2.4IssuesinBenefitEstimation2.5ApproachestoCostEstimation2.6ACriticalAppraisal2.1TypesofValuesEconomistshavedecomposedthetotaleconomicvalueconferredbyresourcesintothreemaincomponents:Usevalue（使用价值）Optionvalue（选择价值）Nonusevalue（非使用价值）2.1TypesofValuesUsevalue（使用价值）reflectsthedirectuseoftheenvironmentalresource.FishharvestedfromtheseaTimberharvestedfromtheforestWaterextractedfromastreamforirrigationScenicbeautyconferredbyanaturalvistaPollutioncancausealossofusevalue.2.1TypesofValuesOptionvalue（选择价值）reflectsthevaluepeopleplaceonafutureabilitytousetheenvironment.Optionvaluereflectsthewillingnesstopreserveanoptiontousetheenvironmentinthefutureevenifoneisnotcurrentlyusingit.Whereasusevaluereflectsthevaluederivefromcurrentuse,optionvaluereflectsthedesiretopreserveapotentialforpossiblefutureuse.2.1TypesofValuesNonusevalue（非使用价值）reflectsthecommonobservationthatpeoplearemorethanwillingtopayforimprovingorpreservingresourcesthattheywillneveruse.2.1TypesofValuesThesecategoriesofvaluecanbecombinedtoproducetheTotalWillingnesstoPay(TWP，总支付意愿):TWP=UseValue+OptionValue+NonuseValue2.2ClassifyingValuationMethods2.2ClassifyingValuationMethodsDirectobservationmethods（直接观察法）arethosewhicharebasedonactualobservablechoicesandfromwhichactualresourcevaluescanbedirectlyinferred.Directhypotheticalmethods（直接假设法）mightbeusedwhenthevalueisnotdirectlyobservable.Thisapproachiscalledcontingentvaluation（意愿调查法或条件估值法）whichmerelyasksrespondentswhatvaluetheywouldplaceonanenvironmentalchangeoronpreservingtheresourceinitscurrentstate.2.2ClassifyingValuationMethodsFourtypesofpotentialbiasforusingthecontingentvaluationmethod（意愿调查法）:Strategicbias（策略性偏差）Informationbias（信息偏差）Startingpointbias（初始点偏差）Hypotheticalbias（假设性偏差）Theobserveddiscrepancybetweenwillingnesstopay(WTP)andwillingnesstoaccept(WTA)2.2ClassifyingValuationMethodsStrategicbias（策略性偏差）ariseswhentherespondentprovidesabiasedanswerinordertoinfluenceaparticularoutcome.Informationbias（信息偏差）mayarisewheneverrespondentsareforcedtovalueattributeswithwhichtheyhavelittleornoexperience.2.2ClassifyingValuationMethodsStarting-pointbias（初始点偏差）mayariseinthosesurveyinstrumentsinwhicharespondentisaskedtocheckoffhisorheranswersfromapredefinedrangeofpossibilities.Hypotheticalbias（假设性偏差）canenterthepicturebecausetherespondentisbeingconfrontedbyacontrivedratherthananactual,setofchoices.Gapsbetweenwillingnesstopayandwillingnesstoacceptcompensationmayarisewhenrespondentsareaskedfortheirwillingnesstoacceptcompensationforaspecifiedlossmaytendtoreportmuchhighervaluesthanifaskedfortheirwillingnesstopayfaraspecifiedimprovementinquantity.2.2ClassifyingValuationMethodsWTPversusWTA:whysodifferent?Psychologicalendowmenteffect(禀赋效应)Substitutes（替代品）Characteristicsofthegoods（物品特征）Moralcontextofthevaluation(价值的道德判断）Propertyrightsallocated（产权配置）2.2ClassifyingValuationMethodsIndirectobservablemethods（间接观察法）are“observable”becausetheyinvolveactual(asopposedtohypothetical)behavior,and“indirect”becausetheyinferavalueratherthanestimateitdirectly.Travel-costmethods（旅行成本法）Hedonicwageapproaches（工资价值法）Hedonicpropertyvalue（资产价值法）Avertingordefensiveexpenditures（费用支出法）2.2ClassifyingValuationMethodsTravel-costmethods（旅行成本法）mayinferthevalueofarecreationalresourcebyusinginformationonhowmuchthevisitorsspentingettingtothesitetoconstructademandcurveforwillingnesstopayfora“visitorday.”Hedonicpropertyvalue（资产价值法）studiesattempttodecomposethevariousattributesofvalueinpropertyintotheircomponentparts.2.2ClassifyingValuationMethodsHedonicwagevalue（工资价值法）approachesaresimilarexceptthattheyattempttoisolatethecomponentofwageswhichservestocompensateworkersinriskyoccupationsfortakingontherisk.Avertingexpenditures（费用支出法）arethosedesignedtoreducethedamagecausedbypollutionbytakingsomekindofavertingordefensiveaction.2.2ClassifyingValuationMethodsIndirecthypotheticalmethods（间接假设法）areillustratedbyatechniqueknownascontingentranking（意愿排序法）whichmeansthatrespondentsaregivenasetofhypotheticalsituationsthatdifferintermsoftheenvironmentalamenityavailableandothercharacteristicstherespondentsarepresumedtocareabout,andareaskedtorankthesesituationsintermsoftheirdesirability.UsinggeographicinformationsystemsforeconomicvaluationGISoffersapowerfulcollectionoftoolsfordepictingandexaminingspatialrelationships.2.3ValuingHumanLifeTheeconomicapproachtovaluinglifesavingreductionsinenvironmentalriskistocalculatethechangeintheprobabilityofdeathresultingfromthereductioninenvironmentalriskandtoplaceavalueonthechange.2.4IssuesinBenefitEstimationPrimaryversussecondaryeffectsArethesecondarybenefitstobecounted?TangibleversusintangiblebenefitsTangiblebenefits（有形收益）arethosewhichcanreasonablybeassignedamonetaryvalue.Intangiblebenefits（无性收益）arethosewhichcannotbeassignedamonetaryvalue.Howareintangiblebenefitstobehandled?2.5ApproachestoCostEstimationThesurveyapproach（调查法）Theengineeringapproach（工程法）Thecombinedapproach（混合法）Thesurveyapproachcollectsinformationonpossibletechnologies,aswellasspecialcircumstancesfacingthefirmEngineeringapproachesareusedtoderivetheactualcostsofthosetechnologies,giventhespecialcircumstances.2.6ACriticalAppraisalOnthepositiveside,benefitcostanalysis（成本收益分析法）isfrequentlyaveryusefulpartofthepolicyprocess.Onthenegativeside,benefitcostanalysishasbeenattackedasseemingtopromisemorethancanactuallybedelivered,particularlyintheabsenceofsolidbenefitinformation.3.Cost-EffectivenessAnalysisCost-effectivenessanalysis（成本有效性分析法）frequentlyinvolvesanoptimizationprocedure.Anoptimizationprocedureismerelyasystematicmethodforfindingthelowestcostmeansofaccomplishingtheobjective.Thisproceduredoesnotproduceanefficientallocationbecausethepredeterminedobjectivemaynotbeefficient.3.Cost-EffectivenessAnalysisSecondEquimarginalPrinciple（第二等边际原理）(TheCost-EffectivenessEquimarginalPrinciple):Theleast-costmeansofachievinganenvironmentaltargetwillhavebeenachievedwhenthemarginalcostsofallpossiblemeansofachievementareequal.4.ImpactAnalysisWhatcanbedonewhentheinformationneededtoperformabenefit-costanalysis（成本收益分析）oracost-effectivenessanalysis（成本有效性分析）isnotavailable?Theanalyticaltechniquedesignedtodealwiththisproblemsiscalledimpactanalysis（影响分析）.4.ImpactAnalysisAnimpactanalysis（影响分析）regardlessofwhetheritfocusoneconomicimpactorenvironmentalimpactorboth,attemptstoquantifytheconsequencesofvariousactions.4.ImpactAnalysisIncontrasttobenefit-costanalysis,apureimpactanalysismakesnoattempttoconvertalltheseconsequencesintoaone-dimensionalmeasure,suchasdollars,toensurecomparability.Incontrasttobothbenefitcostanalysisandcost-effectivenessanalysis,impactanalysisdoesnotnecessarilyattempttooptimize.Furtherreading:L.Tyrväinen,EconomicvaluationofurbanforestbenefitsinFinland,JournalofEnvironmentalManagement(2001)62,75–92L.Tyrväinen,Antti

Miettinen,PropertyPricesandUrbanForestAmenities,JournalofEnvironmentalEconomicsandManagement39,205-223(2000)Liisa

Tyrväinen,Theamenityvalueoftheurbanforest:anapplicationofthehedonicpricingmethod,LandscapeandUrbanPlanning37(1997)21l-222Liisa

Tyrväinen,Hannu

Väänänen,Theeconomicvalueofurbanforestamenities:anapplicationofthecontingentvaluation+method,LandscapeandUrbanPlanning43(1998)105-118A•

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弗里曼，环境与资源价值评估—理论与方法，中国人民大学出版社，2002Objectives&Requirements:UnderstandandgraspthetypesofvaluesUnderstandthemethodsforvaluingbenefitsandcostsofenvironmentUnderstandthethreedifferentmethodsforenvironmentaldecisionProblem:InMarkA.Cohen,“Thecostsandbenefitsofoilspillpreventionandenforcement”,JournalofEnvironmentalEconomicsandManagement13,anattemptwasmadetoquantifythemarginalbenefitsandmarginalcostsofU.S.CoastGuardenforcementactivityintheareaofoilspillprevention.Hisanalysissuggeststhatthemarginalper-gallonbenefitfromthecurrentlevelofenforcementactivityis$7.50whilethemarginalper-galloncostis$5.50.Assumingthesenumbersarecorrect,wouldyourecommendthattheCoastGuardincrease,decrease,orholdatthecurrentleveltheirenforcementactivity?Why?Chapter4 PropertyRights,Externalities,AndEnvironmentalProblems1.IntroductionMaincontents:Exploretheconceptofpropertyrights（产权）andhowitcanbeusedtounderstandwhytheenvironmentalassetcanbeundervaluedbyboththemarketandgovernmentalpolicy.Discusshowthegovernmentandthemarketcanuseknowledgeofpropertyrightsandtheireffectsonincentivestoorchestrateacoordinatedapproachtoresolvingthedifficult.2.PropertyRights2.1PropertyRightsandEfficientMarketAllocations2.2EfficientPropertyRightStructures2.1PropertyRightsandEfficientMarketAllocationsIneconomics,propertyrights（产权）

referstoabundleofentitlementsdefiningtheowner’srights,privileges,andlimitationsforuseoftheresource.Thepropertyrightscanbevestedeitherwithindividuals,asinacapitalisteconomy（资本主义经济）,orwiththestate,asinacentrallyplannedsocialisteconomy（中央计划经济）.2.2EfficientPropertyRightStructuresAnefficientstructurehasthreemaincharacteristics:Exclusivity（排他性）Transferability（可转让性）Enforceability（可强制执行性）2.2EfficientPropertyRightStructuresExclusivity（排他性）meansthatallbenefitsandcostsaccruedasaresultofowningandusingtheresourcesshouldaccruetotheowner,andonlytotheowner,eitherdirectlyorindirectlybysaletoothers.2.2EfficientPropertyRightStructuresTransferability

（可转让性）meansthatallpropertyrightsshouldbetransferablefromoneownertoanotherinavoluntaryexchange.Enforceability（可强制执行性）meansthatpropertyrightsshouldbesecurefrominvoluntaryseizureorencroachmentbyothers.2.2EfficientPropertyRightStructuresAnownerofaresourcewithawell-definedpropertyrighthasapowerfulincentivetousethatresourceefficientlybecauseadeclineinthevalueofthatresourcerepresentsapersonalloss.2.2EfficientPropertyRightStructuresWhenwell-definedpropertyrightsareexchanged,asinamarketeconomy,thisexchangefacilitatesefficiency.3.ExternalitiesasaSourceofMarketFailure3.1TheConceptIntroduced3.2TypesofExternalities3.1TheConceptIntroducedAnexternality（外部性）

existswheneverthewelfareofsomeagent,eitherafirmorhousehold,dependsnotonlyonhisorheractivities,butalsoonactivitiesunderthecontrolofso