产品定价与定价策略二

产品定价与定价策略二1Theprocessofpricesetting2Pricingstrategies3InitiatingandRespondingtoPriceChangeInthischapter,wefocuson3parts:

Chapter11PricingStrategiesFormerprocessNowDesigninganew

productDeterminingitscostAsking‘canwesellitforthis’AnidealsellingpricebasedoncustomerconsiderationsTargetscoststhatwillensurethatthepriceismetChapter11PricingStrategies1Theprocessofsettingprice1TheprocessofsettingpriceDeterminingDemandEstimatingCostsSelectingthePricingObjectiveAnalyzingCompetitors’Costs,prices,andOffersSelectingPricingMethodSelectingtheFinalPriceChapter11PricingStrategies1.1.1Thepositionoftheproduct1.1.2thePricingObjective1.1SelectingthePricingObjectiveChapter11PricingStrategiesUnderthecircumstances,companiesmustfirstlydecideontargetpriceforaproduct,thendecideonitstargetcostandothermarketingmix.Beforeselectingthepricingobjectives,thefirmmustdecidewheretopositionitsproductonqualityandprice.Chapter11PricingStrategies1.1.1Thepositionoftheproduct

Segment(市场细分)ExampleUltimate(最高)Mercedes-Benzvs.RollsRoyceLuxury(豪华)Audivs.LexusSpecialNeed(特别需要)VolvoMiddle(中档)Buickvs.ToyotaConvenience(便利)EscortMetoo,butcheaper(类似品，但较便宜)HyundaiPriceAlone(价格导向)DaihatsuChapter11PricingStrategies1.1.1Thepositionoftheproduct

ForexleifGMdecidestoproduceanewsportscartocompetewithEuropeansportscarsinthehigher-incomesegment,suggestschargingahighprice.Chapter11PricingStrategies1.1.2thePricingObjectiveSurvivalMaximumCurrentProfitMaximumCurrentRevenueMaximumSalesGrowthMaximumMarketSkimmingMarketshareleadershipProduct-QualityLeadershipCompetitionRestrainingpricestabilization

…1.2DeterminingDemand＄15＄10价格100105每期的需求数量＄15＄10价格

50150每期的需求数量Chapter11PricingStrategies●acurvethatshowsthenumberofunitsthemarketwillbuyinagiventimeperiodatdifferentpricesthatmightbecharged.Chapter11PricingStrategies1.2.1Demandcurve●thedemandusuallyincreaseswhenpricefalls.Buttheruleisprobablybrokeninsomecircumstances.demandssuppliesQuantitysoldpriceThebalancepointChapter11PricingStrategies

theprice-demandrelationship1.2.3FactorsAffectingDemand-PriceSensitivityUnique-ValueEffectSubstitute-AwarenessEffectDifficult-ComparisonEffectTotal-ExpenditureEffectEnd-BenefitEffectShared-CostEffectSunk-InvestmentEffectPrice-QualityEffectInventoryEffectChapter11PricingStrategies●Priceelasticity:ameasureofthesensitivityofdemandtochangesinprice.Itisdescribedasfollows:Priceelasticityofdemand=(%changeinquantitydemand)/(%changeinprice)orasfollows:

Chapter11PricingStrategies1.2.4Priceelasticity

∞×（1，∞）（elastic）E=1×（0，1）（inelastic）0×Chapter11PricingStrategies1.2.4PriceelasticityDiscussionofpriceelasticity:

Forelastic:↓P→Q↑↑→PQ↑→profit↑Forinelastic:↑↑P→Q↓→PQ↑→profit↑1.3.1Typeofcosts1.3.2CostBehavior1.3.3TheExperienceCurve1.3.4Cost,varietyandquality1.3.5PricingaccordingtoCost1.3EstimatingCostsChapter11PricingStrategies●variablecosts:coststhatvarydirectlywiththelevelofproduction.●fixedcosts:coststhatdonotvarywithproductionorsalelevel.●totalcosts:thesumofthefixedandvariablecostsforanygivenlevelofproduction.●marginalcosts:increasedcostproduceaunitofproduct.●averagecosts:totalcosts/quantityproduced=variablecosts+fixedcosts/quantityproducedChapter11PricingStrategies1.3.1Typeofcosts

短期平均成本曲线单位成本1，000每天生产的数量CostBehaviorinaFixed-SizePlant（在固定规模工厂中的成本特性）

单位成本1234短期平均成本曲线长期平均成本曲线1,0002,0003,0004,000CostBehaviorOverDifferent-SizePlants（不同规模工厂的成本特性）

Chapter11PricingStrategies1.3.2CostBehavior1.3.3TheExperienceCurveTheExperienceCurve

(经验曲线)＄10＄8＄6＄4＄2单位成本···CBA经验成本曲线当前价格100,000200,000400,000800,000AccumulatedProduction积累生产Chapter11PricingStrategies◆成本与品种◆成本与质量水平COnCOQualityLevel质量故障质量预防总质量成本Chapter11PricingStrategies1.3.4Cost,varietyandqualityDiscussion:Howpricingaccordingtocosts?●ifprice≥averagecost,thenprofits≥0.●ifprice＜averagecost,thenprofits＜0.Undersomespecificcircumstances,itcanbeallowed,butpricecan'tbelowerthanvariablecost,sovariablecostisusuallyconsideredthefloorprice.●ifprice＜marginalcost,doesn’tmeanlackofprofitforacompanythoughtnegativeprofitperunitofproduct,becausepricemightbehigherthanaveragecost,unlesssoldquantityexcessalimitedquantity.Chapter11PricingStrategies1.3.5PricingaccordingtoCostDiscussion:Howpricingaccordingtocosts?AveragecostMarginalcostDemandQuantityproducedPrice,cost,＄MaxProfitMinCostChapter11PricingStrategies1.3.5PricingaccordingtoCost1.4AnalyzingCompetitors’Costs,prices,andOffersCompetitors’costs,prices,andoffers●Thecompany’spricingstrategymayaffectthenatureofthecompetitionitfaces.Forexle,IfCanonfollowsahigh-price,high-marginstrategy,itmayattractcompetition.Alow-price,low-marginstrategy,however,maystopcompetitorsordrivethemoutofthemarket.Chapter11PricingStrategies1.4AnalyzingCompetitors’Costs,prices,andOffers●Thecompany’spricingstrategymayaffectthenatureofthecompetitionitfaces.Forexle,IfCanonfollowsahigh-price,high-marginstrategy,itmayattractcompetition.Alow-price,low-marginstrategy,however,maystopcompetitorsordrivethemoutofthemarket.Chapter11PricingStrategiesdifferenttypesofmarkets:●Purecompetition:pricedbymarket●Monopolistic

competition:mainlypricedbymarketcompetition,atradearrangementisprobablyreachedbysellers,butitsbindingforceisfeeble.●Oligopoliescompetition(寡头竞争):pricedbysellers’arrangement●Pure

monopoly（独占）:pricedbyasellerChapter11PricingStrategies1.4AnalyzingCompetitors’Costs,prices,andOffers1.5SelectingPricingMethod

Chapter11PricingStrategiesMarkupPricingTarget-ReturnPricingPerceived-ValuePricingValuePricingGoing-RatePricingSealed-BidPricingProductcostsPricefloorNoprofitsbelowthispriceCompetitors’priceotherinternalandexternalfactorsConsumerPerceptionsofvaluePriceceilingNodemandabovethispricePricingtheoriesandapproachesChapter11PricingStrategiesChapter11PricingStrategies●1.5.1Cost-basedpricing●1.5.2Break-evenanalysisandtargetprofitpricing●1.5.3Value-basedpricing●1.5.4Competition-basedpricing●1.5.5Advantagesanddisadvantagesofeachpricingapproach1.5SelectingPricingMethod

1.5.1Cost-basedpricing●(1)Definition:addingastandardmarkuptothecostoftheproduct.●(2)Formation:■productprice=unitcost

+markupprice,■unitcost=variablecost+fixedcosts/salesvolume,■markupprice=unitcost×addedrate,or=unitcost/(1-desiredreturnonsales)Chapter11PricingStrategies1.5.2Break-evenanalysisandtargetprofitpricing●(1)

Definition:settingpricetobreakevenonthecostsofmakingandmarketingaproduct;orsettingpricetomakeatargetprofit.●(2)Formation:■productprice=unitvariablecost+(targetprofit+fixedcost)/salesvolumeChapter11PricingStrategies(3)Relationamongsalesvolume,costsandprofitsFormation:profit=(price－variablecost)×production/salevolume－totalfixedcostSalesvolumeFixedcostTotalcostTotalincomeIncome/profit/pricebreak-evenvolume

BreakevenpriceChapter11PricingStrategiesbreak-evenvolume=fixedcost/(price–variablecost)R=（P－Cv）×Q－CoR、Co分为统计期的利润、固定成本Q为统计期的产销量Cv为单位产品的可变成本●pricingbasedontargetprofitsChapter11PricingStrategies(3)Relationamongsalesvolume,costsandprofits●(1)Definition:settingpricebasedonbuyers’perceptionsofvalueratherthanontheseller’scost.●(2)Valuepricing:offeringjusttherightcombinationofqualityandgoodserviceatafairprice.Chapter11PricingStrategies1.5.3Value-basedpricing价格销售量CvCo利润1P1Q1CvCoR12P2Q2R2…………kPkQkRk…………nPnQnRnPricing:P=PkMax｛R1，R2，…，Rk，…，Rn｝MaxChapter11PricingStrategies1.5.3Value-basedpricing●(3)Theproceedingofvalue-basedpricingCost-basedpricingproductcostpricevaluecustomersValue-basedpricingCustomersvaluepricecostproductChapter11PricingStrategies1.5.3Value-basedpricing●(3)Theproceedingofvalue-basedpricing(1)Definition:settingpricesbasedonthepricesthatcompetitorschargeforsimilarproducts.(2)Forms:

●going-ratepricing

●sealed-bidpricingChapter11PricingStrategies1.5.4Competition-basedpricing(1)cost-basedpricing◆简便、实用，将本求利，一般不会诱发价格竞争◆定价过程脱离市场，“闭门造车”，所定价格要么高于市场可接受价格，面临滞销风险；要么低于市场可接受价格，面临市场抢购和营销机会损失◆企业缺乏主动控制和降低成本的动力和压力Chapter11PricingStrategies1.5.5Advantagesanddisadvantagesofeachpricingapproach(2)value-basedpricingonthecontrarywithcost-basedpricingChapter11PricingStrategies1.5.5Advantagesanddisadvantagesofeachpricingapproach

(3)Competition-basedpricing:◆综合了以上两种方法的部分优点，如简便、富有价格竞争力、价格决定成本等◆价格刚性较强，有时对手的价格调整会导致企业“措手不及”◆可能长期没有利润Chapter11PricingStrategies1.5.5Advantagesanddisadvantagesofeachpricingapproach

1.6SelectingtheFinalPricePsychologicalPricingTheInfluenceofOthermarketing-MixElementsonPriceCompanyPricingPoliciesImpactofPriceonOtherpartiesChapter11PricingStrategies2PricingStrategies2.1New-productPricingStrategies2.2Price-adjustmentStrategiesChapter11PricingStrategies2.1New-productPricingStrategiesPricingstrategiesusuallychangeastheproductpassesthroughitslifecycle.Theintroductorystageisespeciallychallenging.Companiesbringingoutanewproductfacethechallengeofsettingpricesforthefirsttime.Theycanchoosetheirstrategies:●market-skimmingpricing●market-penetrationpricingChapter11PricingStrategies●Definition:settingahighpriceforanewproducttoskimmaximumrevenueslayerbylayerfromthesegmentswillingtopaythehighprice.●Appliedconditionsofmarketskimming:firstly,theproduct’qualityandimagemustsupportitshigherprice,andthereareenoughbuyersatthelevelofhigherprice.secondly,thecostsofproducingasmallervolumecannotbesohighthattheycounteracttheadvantageofhigherprice.finally,competitorsshouldnotbeabletoenterthemarketeasilyandundercutthehighprice.Chapter11PricingStrategies2.1.1market-skimmingpricingChapter11PricingStrategies2.1.2Market-penetrationpricing●Definition:settingalowpriceforanewproductinordertoattractalargenumberofbuyersandalargemarketshare.●Appliedconditionsofmarket-penetration:firstly,themarketmustbehighlypricesensitivesothatalowpriceresultsinmoresellinggrowth.secondly,productionanddistributioncostsmustfallassalesvolumeincreases.finally,thelowpricemusthelpkeepoutthecompetition,andpenetrationpricemustmaintainitslow-priceposition.Otherwise,thepriceadvantagemaybeonlytemporary.Acompany’spricingdecisionsareaffectedbybothinternalcompanyfactorsandexternalenvironmentalfactors.Besidescostanddemand,otherexternalfactors,suchaseconomicsituations,policies,lawsandregulationsaswellassocialconcernsalsoinfluencepricealot.Insettingprices,acompany’sshort-termsales,marketshare,andprofitgoalsmayhavetobetempered（调节）bybroadlysocietalconsiderations.Chapter11PricingStrategies2.2Price-adaptationStrategiesChapter11PricingStrategies2.2Price-adaptationStrategiesCompaniesusuallyadjusttheirbasicpricestoaccountforvariouscustomerdifferencesandchangingsituations.2.2.1GeographicalPricing(地理定价)2.2.2PriceDiscountsandAllowance

(价格折扣和折让)2.2.3PromotionalPricing

(促销定价)2.2.4DiscriminatoryPricing

(差别定价)2.2.5Product-MixPricing

(产品组合定价)

Chapter11PricingStrategies2.2Price-adaptationStrategiesGeographicalpricing：Adjustingpricestoaccountforthegeographiclocationofcustomers.Itsformsareasfollows:●FOB-originpricing（freeonboard）●uniform-deliveredpricing(统一价)●zonepricing●basing-pointpricing●freight-absorptionpricing（含运费）Chapter11PricingStrategies2.2.1GeographicalpricingInternationalpricing:Adjustingpricesforinternationalmarkets.

Thepricethatacompanyshouldchargeinaspecificcountrydependsonmanyfactors,includingeconomicconditions,lawsandregulations,anddevelopmentofthewholesalingandretailingsystem.Consumerperceptionsandpreferences(感觉与偏好)alsomayvaryfromcountrytocountry,callingfordifferentprices.2.2.1GeographicalpricingChapter11PricingStrategiesDiscountandallowancepricing:Mostcompaniesadjusttheirbasicpricetorewardcustomersforcertainresponses,suchasearlypaymentofbills,volumepurchases,andoff-seasonbuying.Itsformsareasfollow:●cashdiscount●quantitydiscount●functionaldiscount●seasonaldiscount●allowancesChapter11PricingStrategies2.2.2DiscountandallowancepricingPromotionalpricing:Temporarilyreducingprices,sometimesevenbelowcost,toincreaseshort-runsales.Itsformsareasfollows:●discounts

●special-eventpricing●cashrebates●low-interestfinancing●longerwarranties●freemaintenanceAttention:usedtoofrequentlyandcopiedbycompetitors,pricepromotionscancreate“deal-prone”customerswhowaituntilbrandsgoonsalebeforebuyingthem.Or,constantlyreducedpricescanerode(腐蚀)abrand’svalueintheeyesofcustomers.Chapter11PricingStrategies2.2.3PromotionalPricing2.2.3PromotionalPricingLoss-LeaderPricingSpecial-EventPricingCashRebatesLow-InterestFinancingLong-TermPaymentWarrantiesandServiceContractsPsychologicalDiscountingChapter11PricingStrategiesPsychologicalpricing:Adjustingpricesaccordingtopsychologicaleffect.Forexle,onestudyoftherelationshipbetweenpriceandqualityperceptionsofcarsfoundthatconsumersperceivehigher-pricedcarsashavinghigherquality.Anotheraspectofpsychologicalpricingisreferenceprices---pricesthatbuyerscarryintheirmindsandrefertowhenlookingatagivenproduct.Chapter11PricingStrategies2.2.3PromotionalPricingSegmentedpricing:sellingaproductorserviceattwoormoreprices,wherethedifferenceinpricesisnotbasedondifferenceincosts.Adjustingpricestoallowfordifferencesincustomers,products,orlocations.ItsFormsareasfollow:●customer-segmentpricing●locationpricing●product-formpricing●timepricingcertainconditionsmustexistforsegmentedpricing.1themarketmustbesegmentable,2thesegmentsmustshowdifferentdegreeofdemandChapter11PricingStrategies2.2.4DiscriminatoryPricing

Customer-SegmentPricing

(公司顾客细分定价)Product-FormPricing(产品式样定价)ImagePricing(形象定价)LocationPricing(地点定价)TimePricing(时间定价)Chapter11PricingStrategies2.2.4DiscriminatoryPricing

2.2.5Product-MixPricingProduct-LinePricing(产品线定价法)Optional-FeaturePricing(选择特色定价法)Captive-ProductPricing(附带产品定价法)ByproductPricing(副产品定价法)Product-BundlingPricing(捆绑定价法)Chapter11PricingStrategies●Define:Settingpricestepsbetweenproductlineitems.●Strategies:apricesystemofproductlineitemsdoesn't'tbreakthebalanceofbuyer’imagineaboutproductgrades,customerevaluationsofdifferentfeatures,andcompetitors’prices.Chapter11PricingStrategiesproductlinepricing●Define:Pricingoptionaloraccessoryproductssoldwiththemainproduct.●Strategies:thepricesofoptionaloraccessoryproductsofareusuallyhigherthantheirmainproduct.Productbundlepricing●DefinePricingbundlesofproductssoldtogether●Strategies:combiningseveralproductsandofferingthebundleatareducedprice.Chapter11PricingStrategiesOptional-Featurepricing

●settingapriceforproductsthatmustbeusedalongwithamainproduct,suchasbladesforarazorandfilmforacamera.By-productpricing●settingapriceforby-productsinordertomakethemainproducts’pricemorecompetitive.Chapter11PricingStrategiesCaptive-productpricing

3InitiatingandRespondingtoPriceChange3.1InitiatingPriceCuts3.2InitiatingPriceincreases3.3RespondingtoCompetitor´sPriceChanges3.4Commonmethodofpriceadjustment3.5QuestionsconsideredbeforerespondingtoapricechangeChapter11PricingStrategies3.1InitiatingPriceCuts

Chapter11