2022年广西大学英语考试真题卷14测

2022年广西大学英语考试真题卷（本卷共分为1大题50小题,作答时间为!80分钟,总分100分,60分及格。）单位:姓名: 考号:题号单选题多项选择判断题综合题总分分值得分ー、单项选择题(共50题,每题2分。每题的备选项中,只有一个最符合题意)WhichofthefollowingisnotafactorthathascontributedtotherapidpopuIationgrowthNow,therearenowinsandpeopleliveinapeacefulworld.Morechildrencanlivetotheiradulthoodandhavetheirownchildren.Peoplelivelongernowthaninthepast.Peopleimmunizemanyfataldiseasesofwhichmanypeopledied.{{l}}Questions8to10arebasedonthefollowingnews.Attheendofthenewsitem,youwiIIbegiven10secondstoanswereachquestion.NowIistentothenews.{{/I}}ThereareRussian(s)andAmerican(s)onboard.one,oneone,twotwo,twotwo,one{(Bl}TEXTA{{/B}}Sincethelate1970,s,inthefaceofasevere10ssofmarketshareindozensofindustries,manufacturersintheUnitedStateshavebeentryingtoimproveproductivityandthereforeenhancetheirinternationaIcompetitivenessthroughcost-cuttigprograms.(Cost-cuttinghereisdefiningtheamountoflaborconstant.)However,from1978through1982,productivity-thevalueofgoodsmanufactureddividedbytheamountoflaborinput-didnotimprove;andwhiletheresultswerebetterinthebusinessupturnofthethreeyearsfollowing,theyran25percentlowerthanproductivityimprovementsduringearIier,post-1945upturns.Atthesame,itbecameclearthehardermanufacturesworkedtoimpIementcost-cutting,themoretheylosttheircompetitiveedge.Withthisparadoxinmind,Irecentlyvisited25companies;itbecamecleartomethatthecost-cuttingapproachtoincreasingproductivityisfundamentallyflawed.Manufacturingregularlyobservesa”40,40,20"rule.RoughIy40percentofanymanufacturing-basedcompetitiveadvantagederivesfromlong-termchangesinmanufacturingstructure(decisionsaboutthenumber,size,Iocation,andcapacityoffaciIities)andinapproachestomaterials.Another40percentcomesfrommajorchangesinequipmentandprocesstechnology.Thefinal20percentrestsonimpIementingconventionaIeast-cutting.Thisruledoesnotbetried.Thewe11-knowntoolsofthisapproach-includingsimplifyingjobsandretrainingempIoyeestoworksmarter,notharder-doproduceresults.Butthetoolsquicklyreachthelimitsofwhattheycancontribute.Anotherproblemisthatthecost-cuttingapproachhindersinnovationanddiscouragescreativepeopIe.AsAbernathy'sstudyofautomobiIemanufacturershasshown,anindustrycaneasilybecomeprisonerofitsowninvestmentincast-cuttingtechniques,reducingitsabilitytodevelopnewproducts.Andmanagersunderpressuretomaximizecost-cuttingwiIIresistinnovationbecausetheyknowthatmorefundamentaIchangesinprocessesorsystemswi11wreakhavocwiththeresultsonwhichtheyaremeasured.Productionmanagershavealwaysseentheirjobasoneofminimizingcostsandmaximizingoutput.ThisdimensionofperformancehasuntiIrecentlysufficedasabasisofevaluation,butithascreatedapenny-pinching,mechanisticcultureinmostfactoriesthathaskeptawaycreativemanagers.EverycompanyIknowthathasfreeditselffromtheparadoxhasdoneso,inpart,bydevelopingandimpIementingamanufacturingstrategy.SuchastrategyfacturingandimpIementingamanufacturingstrategy.Suchastrategyfocusesonthemanufacturingstructureandonequipmentandprocesstechnology.InonecompanyamamufacturingstrategythataIIoweddifferentareasofthefactorytospeciaIizeindifferentmarketsreplacedtheconventionaIcast-cuttingapproach;withinthreeyearsthecompanyregaineditscompetitiveadvantage.Togetherwithsuchstrategies,successfulcompaniesare.alsoencouragingmanagerstofocusonawidersetofobjectivesbesidescuttingcosts.Thereishopeformanufacturing,butitclearlyrestsonadifferentwayofmanaging.Theauthor'sattitudetowardthecultureinmostfactoriesisbestdescribedas.cautiouscriticaldisinterestedrespectful{{B}}TEXTC{{/B}}AbIindbabyisdoublyhandicapped.Notonlyisitunabletosee,butbecauseitcannotreceivethevisualstimuIusfromitsenvironmentthatasightedchilddoes,itisIikeIytobesIowininteIlectuaIdeveIopment.Nowtheten-montholdsonofDr.andMrs.DennisDaughtersisthesubjectofanunusualpsychologicalexperimentdesignedtopreventalaginthelearningprocess.Withtheaidofasonar-typeelectronicthathewearsonhishead,infantDennisislearningtoidentifythepeopIeandobjectsintheworIdaroundhimbymeansofechoes.Dennisandatwinbrother,Daniel,werebornlastSeptemberaImostthreemonthstooearly.Danieldiedafterfivedays,andDennisdeveIopedretrolentalfibroplasias,aneyedisorderusuallycausedbyoverexposuretooxygeninanincubator.Hewentblind,butthroughapediatricianattheprematureunitwherehewastreated,theDaughterswerecontactedbyDr.TomBower,apsychologistfromtheUniversityofEdinburghthenservingafeIIowshipattheStanfordUniversityCentreforAdvancedStudyintheBehaviouralSciences.BowerwantedtoseehowabIindinfantmightrespondifgivenanechosoundingdevicetohelphimcopewithhissurroundingsandtheDaughtersagreedtohelp.Bythetimethechildwassixweeksold,hisparentsnoticedthathecontinuouslyutteredsharpclickingsoundswithhistongue.BowerexpIainedthatblindpeopIeoftenuseechoestoorientthemselves,andthattheclickingsoundsweretheboy'swayofcreatingechoes.This,BowerbeIieved,madethechildanidealsubjectfortestingwithanelectronicechosoundingdevice.Signals:Thedeviceusedinthestudyisarefinementofthe“Sonicguide",aninstrumentproducedbyTelesensorySystem,Inc.,ofPaloAlto,Calif.,andusedbybIindadultsinadditiontosaneorguidedog.AsadaptedforDennis,itconsistsofabattery-poweredsystemaboutthesizeofahalfdoIIarthatisonaheadgear.Atransmitteremitsanultrasonicpulsethatcreatesan80-degreeconeofsoundat6feet.EchoesfromobjectswithintheconeareperceivedassoundsthatvaryinpitchandvoIumewiththesizeanddistanceoftheobject.Thecloseranobjectis,helowerthepitch,andthelargertheobject,thelouderthesignaI.Hardsurfacesproduceasharpping,whilesoftonessendbacksignaIswithasiightIyfuzzyquaIity.AnobjectsIightIytotherightofDenny'ssendsbackaloudersoundtohisrightearthantotheleft.Thus,bysimplymovinghisheadrightandleftandupanddown,hecannotonlyIocateanobjectbutalsogetsomenotionofitsshapeandsize,thankstothevaryingquaIitiesofsoundsreachinghisearsastheconeofultrasoundpassesitsedges.DennisIikestousethedevicetopIayakindofpeek-a-boowithhismother.Standingonherkneeandfacingherdirectly,hereceivesastrongsignaIinbothears.Bymininghisheadaway,hemakesherseemtodisappear.MFromthefirsttimeheworeit,"saysMrs.Daughters,MitwasIikeaIightgoingoninhishead.nTheboyalsoIearnedtoidentifymanyobjects,includinghisfavouritetoy,arobbercaterpiIIarwithsixantenna-1ikeprojectionscomingoutofitsbody.Andatsix-and-a-haIfmonths,whenateethingbiscuitwasheldinfrontofDennis,thechildimmediatelygrabbeditwithbothhandsandputitintohismouth.Sofar,thestudyhasshownthatanormaIblindbabycanempIoyechoesaswe11as,orevenbetterthan,anunsightedadultcan.WhatremainstobedeterminedishowweIIthedevicewiIIhelpDenniscopewithhissurroundingsashebeginstowaIkandventurefurtherintohisenvironment.MeanwhiIetTelesensory,Inc.,isworkingonthedeveIopmentofasonardevicewithsomewhatthesamesensitivityasDennis'sforusebyschooI-agechiIdren.BowerbeIievedDenniswouldbetheidealsubjectforhisexperimentbecause.DenniswasblindatbirthDenniswasyoungerthananyoneelsehecouldfindDennis,sparentswerequiteworriedabouthisfutureDennisalwaysproducedsharpclickingsoundswithhistongue{{B}}TEXTD({/B}JScience,inpractice,dependsfarlessontheexperimentsitpreparesthanonthepreparednessofthemindsofthemenwhowatchtheexperiments.SirIsaacNewtonsupposedlydiscoveredgravitythroughthefa11ofanappIe.AppIeshadbeenfallinginmanypIacesforcenturiesandthousandsofpeopIehadseenthemfall.ButNewtonforyearshadbeencuriousaboutthecauseoftheorbitalmotionofthemoonandplanets.WhatkepttheminplaceWhydidn'ttheyfaIIoutoftheskyThefactthattheapplefelIdowntowardtheearthandnotupintothetreeansweredthequestionbehadbeenaskinghimselfaboutthoselargerfruitsoftheheavens,themoonandtheplanets.HowmanymenwouIdhaveconsideredthepossibiIityofanappIefalIingupintothetreeNewtondidbecausehewasnottryingtopredictanything.Hewasjustwondering.Hismindwasreadyfortheunpredictable.UnpredictabiIityispartoftheessentiaInatureofresearch.Ifyoudon5thaveunpredictablethings,youdon'thaveresearch.ScientiststendtoforgetthiswhenwritingtheircutanddriedreportsforthetechnicaIJournals,buthistory,isfilledwithexampIesofit.Intalkingtosomescientists,particularlyyoungerones,youmightgathertheimpressionthattheyfindthe"scientificmethod"asubstituteforimaginativethought.I,veattendedresearchconferenceswhereascientisthasbeenaskedwhathethinksabouttheadvisabiIityofcontinuingacertainexperiment.Thescientisthasfrowned,Iookedatthegraphs,andsaid"Thedataarestillinconclusive.M"Weknowthat,Mthemenfromthebudgetofficehavesaid,Hbutwhatdoyouthink"IsitworthwhiIegoingonWhatdoyouthinkwemightexpect"Thescientisthasbeenshockedathavingevenbeenaskedtospeculate.Whatthisamountsto,ofcourse,isthatthescientisthasbecomethevictimofhisownwritings.HehasputforwardunquestionedclaimssoconsistentIythathenotonlybeIievesthemhimself,buthasconvineedindustrialandbusinessmanagementthattheyaretree.IfexperimentsarepIannedandcarriedoutaccordingtoplanisfaithfullyasthereportsinthesciencejournaIsmedicate,thenitisperfectlytopicaIformanagementtoexpectresearchtoproduceresultsmeasurableindollarsandcents.ItisentirelyreasonableforauditorstobeIievethatscientistswhoknowexactIywheretheyaregoingandhowtheywiIIgetthereshouIdnotbedistractedbythenecessityofkeepingoneeyeonthecashregisterwhiletheothereyeisonthemicroscope.Nor,ifregularityandconformitytoastandardpatternareasdesirabletothescientistasthewritingofhispaperswouldappeartoreflect,ismanagementtobebIamedfordiscriminatingagainstthe"oddbaIIs"amongresearchersinfavorofmoreconventionaIthinkerswho"workwe11withtheteam".Theauthorassertsthatscientists.A.shouldn,treplace"scientificmethod"withimaginativethoughtB.shouldn'tneglecttospeculateonunpredictablethingsC.shouldwritemoreconcisereportsfortechnicaljournalsD.shouldbeconfidentabouttheirresearchfindings{{B11TEXTTheyearwhichprecededmyfather1sdeathmadegreatchangeinmyIife.IhadbeenIivinginNewJersey,workingdefenseplants,workingandIivingamongsoutherners,whiteandblack.Iknewaboutthesouth,ofcourse,andabouthowsouthernerstreatedNegroesandhowtheyexpectedthemtobehave,butithadneverenteredmymindthatanyonewouldlookatmeandexpectmetobehavethatway.IlearnedinNewJerseythattobeaNegromeant,precisely,thatonewasneverIockedatbutwassimplyatthemercyofthereflexesofthecolorofone'sskincausedinotherpeopIe.IactedinNewJerseyasIhadalwaysacted,thatisasthoughIthoughtagreatdeaIofmyseIf-Ihadtoactthatway-withresultsthatwere,simply,unbelievable.IhadscarcelyarrivedbeforeIhadearnedtheenmity,whichwasextraordinarilyingenious,ofalImysuperiorsandnearlyalImyco-workers.Inthebeginning,tomakemattersworse,Isimplydidnotknowwhatwashappening.Ididnotknowwhathaddone,andIshortlybegantowonderwhatanyonecouldpossiblydo,tobringaboutsuchunanimous,active,andunbearablyvocalhostiIity.Iknewaboutjim-crowbutIhadneverexperiencedit.IwenttothesameseIf-servicerestaurantthreetimesandstoodwithalIthePrincetonboysbeforethecounter,waitingforahamburgerandcoffee;itwasalwaysanextraordinarilylongtimebeforeanythingwassetbeforeme:Ihadsimplypiekedsomethingup.Negroeswerenotservedthere,Iwastold,andtheyhadbeenwaitingformetorealizethatIwasaIwaystheonlyNegropresent.OnceIwastoldthis,IdeterminedtogotherealIthetime.Butnowtheywerereadyformeand,thoughsomedreadfulscenesweresubsequentIyenactedinthatrestaurant,Ineveratethereagain.ItwassamestoryalIoverNewJersey,inbars,bowlingalleys,diners,placestoIive.Iwasalwaysbeingforcedtoleave,silentIy,orwithmutuaIimprecations.IveryshortIybecamenotoriousandchiIdrengiggledbehindmewhenIpassedandtheirelderswhisperedorshouted-theyreallybelievedthatIwasmad.Anditdidbegintoworkonmymind,ofcourse;IbegantobeafraidtogoanywhereandtocompensateforthisIwentpIacestowhichIreallyshouldnothavegoneandwhere,Godknows,Ihadnodesiretobe.MyreputationintownnaturallyenhancedmyreputationatworkandmyworkingdaybecameoneIongseriesofacrobaticsdesignedtokeepmeoutoftrouble.Icannotsaythattheseacrobaticsnight,withbutoneaim:toejectme.Iwasfiredonce,andcontrived,withtheaidofafriendfromNewYork,togetbackonthepayrolIwasfiredagain,andbouncedbackagain.Ittookawhiletofiremeforthethirdtime,butthethirdtimetook.Therewarenoloopholesanywhere.Therewasnotevenanywayofgettingbackinsidethegates.ThatyearinNewJerseyIivesinmymindasthoughitweretheyearduringwhich,havinganunsuspectedpredilectionforit,Ifirstcontractedsomedread,chronicdisease,theunfaiIingsymptomofwhichiskindofblindfever,apoundingintheskulIandfireinthebowels.Oncethisdiseaseiscontracted,onecanneverbereallycarefreeagain,forthefever,withoutaninstant'swarning,canrecuratanymoment.Itcanwreckmoreimportantracerelations.ThereisnotaNegroalivewhodoesnothavethisrageinhisblood-onehasthechoice,merely,oflivingwithitconsciouslyorsurrenderingtoit.Asforme,thisfeverhasrecurredinme,anddoes,andwi11untiIthedayIdie.MylastnightinNewJersey,awhitefriendfromNewYorktookmetothenearestbigtown,Trenton,togotothemoviesandhaveafewdrinks.Asitturnedout,healsosavedmefrom,attheveryleast,aviolentwhipping.AImostevery,detaiIofthatnightstandsoutverydearlyinmymemory.Ievenrememberthenameofthemoviewesawbecauseitstitleimpressedmeasbeingsopartlyironical.ItwasamovieabouttheGermanoccupationofFrance,starringMaureen0'HaraandCharlesLaughtonandcalledThisLandIsMine.IrememberthenameofthedinerwewaIkedintowhenthemovieended.Itwasthe"AmericanDinerw.WhenwewaIkedinthecountermanaskedwhatwewantedandIrememberansweringwiththecasualsharpnesswhichhadbecomemyhabit:"Wewantahamburgerandacupofcoffee,whatdoyouthinkwewant"Idenotknowwhy,afterayearofsuchrebuffs,IsocompIeteIyfaiIedtoanticipatehisanswer,whichwas,ofcourse,"Wedon'tserveNegroeshere."ThisrepIyfaiIedtodiscomposeme,atleastforthemoment.ImadesomesardoniccommentaboutthenameofthedinerandwewaIkedoutintothestreets.Thiswasthetimeofwhatwascalledthe"brown-out",whentheIightsinalIAmericancitieswereverydim.WhenwereenteredthestreetssomethinghappenedtomewhichhadtheforceofanopticaIillusion,oranightmare.ThestreetswereverycrowdedathatwasayearinwhichawfulthingshappenedtomethatwasayearthatIwillneverevenforgetthatwasayearthatonlyexistedinmymind；butneverhappenedtoexistthatwasayearwhenIlivedinNewJerseyWhichpartoftheworlddidNOTexperiencethenegativepopuIationgrowthAmerica.Australia.Asia.Europe.{{B}}TEXTE{{/B}}Ethnographyisthestudyofaparticularhumansocietyortheprocessofmakingsuchastudy.ContemporaryethnographyisbasedaImostentirelyonfieldworkandrequiresthecompIeteimmersionoftheanthropologistinthecultureandeverydayIifeofthepeopIewhoarethesubjectofhisstudy.Ethnography,byvirtueofitsintersubjectivenature,isnecessarilycomparative.Giventhattheanthropologistinthefieldnecessarilyretainscertainculturalbiases,hisobservationsanddescriptionsmust,toacertaindegree,becomparative.Thustheformulatingofgeneralizationsaboutcultureandthedrawingofcomparisonsinevitablybecomecomponentsofethnography.ModernanthropologistsusuallyidentifytheestabIishmentofethnographyasaprofessionalfieldwiththepioneeringworkofthePolish-bornBritishanthropologistBronisIawMaIinowskiintheTrobriandIsIandsofMelanesia.Ethnographicfieldworkhadsincebecomeasortofriteofpassageintotheprofessionofculturalanthropology.Manyethnographersresideinthefieldforayearormore,learningthelocalIanguageordialectand,tothegreatestextentpossible,participatingineverydayIifewhileatthesametimemaintaininganobserver'sobjectivedetachment.Thismethod,calledparticipant-observation,whilenecessaryandusefulforgainingathoroughunderstandingofaforeignculture,isinpracticequitedifficult.Justastheanthropologistbringstothesituationcertaininherent,ifunconscious,culturalbiases,soalsoisheinfIuencedbythesubjectofhisstudy.Whiletherearecasesofethnographerswhofeltalienatedorevenrepelledbytheculturetheyentered,many-perhapsmost-havecometoidentifycIoseIywithMtheirpeople",afactorthataffectstheirobjectivity.Inadditiontothetechniqueofparticipant-observation,thecontemporaryethnographerusuaIlyselectsandcultivatesdosereIationshipwithindividuaIs,knownasinformants,whocanprovidespecificinformationonritual,kinship,orothersignificantaspectsofculturalIife.Inthisprocessalsotheanthropologistrisksthedangerofbiasedviewpoints,asthosewhomostwillinglyactasinformantsfrequentlyareindividualswhoaremarginaItothegroupandwhomayprovideotherthanobjectiveexplanationsofculturalandsociaIphenomena.Afinalhazardinherentinethnographicfieldworkistheever-presentpossibiIityofculturalchangeproducedbyorresultingfromtheethnographer1spresenceinthegroup.Contemporaryethnographiesusuallyadheretoacommunity,ratherthanindividual,focusandconcentrateonthedescriptionofcurrentcircumstancesratherthanhistoricalevents.Traditionally,commonalitiesamongmembersofthegrouphavebeenemphasized,thoughrecentethnographyhasbeguntoreflectaninterestintheimportanceofvariationwithincuIturaIsystems.EthnographicstudiesarenolongerrestrictedtosmaIIprimitivesocietiesbutmayaIsofocusonsuchsociaIunitsasurbanghettos.ThetoolsoftheethnographerhavechangedradicallysinceMalinowski'stime.WhiledetaiIednotesarestillamainstayoffieldwork,ethnographershavetakenfulIadvantageoftechnologicaldevelopmentssuchasmotionpicturesandtaperecorderstoaugmenttheirwrittenaccounts.TheethnographershowsgreatinterestinaIIofthefollowingEXCEPTcurrentconditionsthatexistwithacultureindividualbehaviorasshapedbyacustombehaviorpatternscommonamongmembersofaculturedifferencesexistingwithinacultureIfacountryhasapopuIationof20millionanditsrateofnaturalpopuIationincreaseis2%,after34years,thecountrywiIIhaveapopuIationof.80million60million50millionD.40million{{B}}TEXTD{{/B1JScience,inpractice,dependsfarlessontheexperimentsitpreparesthanonthepreparednessofthemindsofthemenwhowatchtheexperiments.SirIsaacNewtonsupposedlydiscoveredgravitythroughthefa11ofanapple.AppleshadbeenfallinginmanyplacesforcenturiesandthousandsofpeopIehadseenthemfall.ButNewtonforyearshadbeencuriousaboutthecauseoftheorbitalmotionofthemoonandplanets.WhatkepttheminplaceWhydidn'ttheyfaIIoutoftheskyThefactthattheapplefelIdowntowardtheearthandnotupintothetreeansweredthequestionbehadbeenaskinghimselfaboutthoselargerfruitsoftheheavens,themoonandtheplanets.HowmanymenwouIdhaveconsideredthepossibiIityofanappIefalIingupintothetreeNewtondidbecausehewasnottryingtopredictanything.Hewasjustwondering.Hismindwasreadyfortheunpredictable.UnpredictabiIityispartoftheessentiaInatureofresearch.Ifyoudon'thaveunpredictablethings,youdon'thaveresearch.ScientiststendtoforgetthiswhenwritingtheircutanddriedreportsforthetechnicaIJournals,buthistory,isfilledwithexampIesofit.Intalkingtosomescientists,particularlyyoungerones,youmightgathertheimpressionthattheyfindthe"scientificmethod"asubstituteforimaginativethought.I,veattendedresearchconferenceswhereascientisthasbeenaskedwhathethinksabouttheadvisabiIityofcontinuingacertainexperiment.Thescientisthasfrowned,Iookedatthegraphs,andsaid"Thedataarestillinconclusive.""Weknowthat,wthemenfromthebudgetofficehavesaid,"butwhatdoyouthink"IsitworthwhiIegoingonWhatdoyouthinkwemightexpect"Thescientisthasbeenshockedathavingevenbeenaskedtospeculate.Whatthisamountsto,ofcourse,isthatthescientisthasbecomethevictimofhisownwritings.HehasputforwardunquestionedclaimssoconsistentIythathenotonlybeIievesthemhimself,buthasconvineedindustrialandbusinessmanagementthattheyaretree.IfexperimentsarepIannedandcarriedoutaccordingtoplanisfaithfuIlyasthereportsinthesciencejournalsmedicate,thenitisperfectlytopicaIformanagementtoexpectresearchtoproduceresultsmeasurableindollarsandcents.ItisentirelyreasonableforauditorstobeIievethatscientistswhoknowexactlywheretheyaregoingandhowtheywiIIgetthereshouIdnotbedistractedbythenecessityofkeepingoneeyeonthecashregisterwhiletheothereyeisonthemicroscope.Nor,ifregularityandconformitytoastandardpatternareasdesirabletothescientistasthewritingofhispaperswouldappeartoreflect,ismanagementtobebIamedfordiscriminatingagainstthe"oddballs”amongresearchersinfavorofmoreconventionaIthinkerswho"workweIIwiththeteam'1.Itseemsthatsomeyoungscientists.haveakeeninterestinpredictionoftenspeculateonthefuturethinkhighlyofcreativethinkingD.sticktowscientificmethodw({B1JTEXTE{{/B}}Ethnographyisthestudyofaparticularhumansocietyortheprocessofmakingsuchastudy.ContemporaryethnographyisbasedaImostentirelyonfieldworkandrequiresthecompIeteimmersionoftheanthropologistinthecultureandeverydayIifeofthepeopIewhoarethesubjectofhisstudy.Ethnography,byvirtueofitsintersubjectivenature,isnecessarilycomparative.Giventhattheanthropologistinthefieldnecessarilyretainscertainculturalbiases,hisobservationsanddescriptionsmust,toacertaindegree,becomparative.Thustheformulatingofgeneralizationsaboutcultureandthedrawingofcomparisonsinevitablybecomecomponentsofethnography.ModernanthropologistsusuallyidentifytheestabIishmentofethnographyasaprofessionalfieldwiththepioneeringworkofthePoIish-bornBritishanthropoIogistBronisIawMaIinowskiintheTrobriandIslandsofMelanesia.Ethnographicfieldworkhadsincebecomeasortofriteofpassageintotheprofessionofculturalanthropology.Manyethnographersresideinthefieldforayearormore,learningthelocalIanguageordialectand,tothegreatestextentpossible,participatingineverydayIifewhileatthesametimemaintaininganobserver1sobjectivedetachment.Thismethod,calledparticipant-observation,whilenecessaryandusefulforgainingathoroughunderstandingofaforeignculture,isinpracticequitedifficult.Justastheanthropologistbringstothesituationcertaininherent,ifunconscious,culturalbiases,soalsoisheinfIuencedbythesubjectofhisstudy.WhiletherearecasesofethnographerswhofeltaIienatedorevenrepelledbytheculturetheyentered,many-perhapsmost-havecometoidentifycloseIywith"theirpeople",afactorthataffectstheirobjectivity.Inadditiontothetechniqueofparticipant-observation,thecontemporaryethnographerusuaIlyseiectsandcultivatesdosereIationshipwithindividuaIs,knownasinformants,whocanprovidespecificinformationonritual,kinship,orothersignificantaspectsofculturalIife.Inthisprocessalsotheanthropologistrisksthedangerofbiasedviewpoints,asthosewhomostwillinglyactasinformantsfrequentlyareindividualswhoaremarginaltothegroupandwhomayprovideotherthanobjectiveexplanationsofculturalandsociaIphenomena.Afinalhazardinherentinethnographicfieldworkistheever-presentpossibiIityofculturalchangeproducedbyorresultingfromtheethnographer1spresenceinthegroup.Contemporaryethnographiesusuallyadheretoacommunity,ratherthanindividual,focusandconcentrateonthedescriptionofcurrentcircumstancesratherthanhistoricalevents.Traditionally,commonalitiesamongmembersofthegrouphavebeenemphasized,thoughrecentethnographyhasbeguntoreflectaninterestintheimportanceofvariationwithincuIturaIsystems.EthnographicstudiesarenolongerrestrictedtosmaIIprimitivesocietiesbutmayaIsofocusonsuchsociaIunitsasurbanghettos.ThetoolsoftheethnographerhavechangedradicallysinceMalinowski1stime.WhiledetaiIednotesarestillamainstayoffieldwork,ethnographershavetakenfulIadvantageoftechnologicaldevelopment