(完整版)胡壮麟《语言学教程》名词解释

LINGUISTICSACOURSEBOOK

Definethefollowingterms:

designfeature:arefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguages,suchasarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,culturaltransmission,etc.

function:theuseoflanguagetocommunicate,tothink,etc.Languagefunctionsinclucleinformativefunction,interpersonalfunction,performativefunction,interpersonalfunction,performativefunction,emotivefunction,phaticcommunion,recreationalfunctionandmetalingualfunction.

etic:atermincontrastwithemicwhichoriginatesfromAmericanlinguistPike'sdistinctionofphoneticsandphonemics.Beingeticmansmakingfartoomany,aswellasbehaviouslyinconsequential,differentiations,justaswasofterthecasewithphoneticvx.phonemicanalysisinlinguisticsproper.

emic:atermincontrastwitheticwhichoriginatesfromAmericanlinguistPike'sdistinctionofphoneticsandphonemics.Anemicsetofspeechactsandeventsmustbeonethatisvalidatedasmeaningfulviafinalresourcetothenativemembersofaspeechcommunityratherthanviaappealtotheinvestigator'singenuityorintuitionalone.

synchronic:akindofdescriptionwhichtakesafixedinstant(usually,butnotnecessarily,thepresent),asitspointofobservation.Mostgrammarsareofthiskind.

diachronic:studyofalanguageiscarriedthroughthecourseofitshistory.

prescriptive:thestudyofalanguageiscarriedthroughthecourseofitshistory.

prescriptive:akindoflinguisticstudyinwhichthingsareprescribedhowoughttobe,i.e.layingdownrulesforlanguageuse.

descriptive:akindoflinguisticstudyinwhichthingsarejustdescribed.

arbitrariness:onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothefacethattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.

duality:onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofarecomposedofelementsofthesecondary.levelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.

displacement:onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichmeanshumanlanguageenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresentcintimeandspace,atthemomentofcommunication.

phaticcommunion:onefunctionofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothesocialinteractionoflanguage.

metalanguage:certainkindsoflinguisticsignsortermsfortheanalysisanddescriptionofparticularstudies.

macrolinguistics:heinteractingstudybetweenlanguageandlanguage-relateddisciplinessuchaspsychology,sociology,ethnography,scienceoflawandartificialintelligenceetc.Branchesofmacrolinguisticsincludepsycholinguistics,sociolinguistics,anthropologicallinguistics,etc.

competence:languageuser'sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules.

performance:theactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituation.

langue:thelinguisticcompetenceofthespeaker.

parole:theactualphenomenaordataoflinguistics(utterances).

Articulatoryphonetics:thestudyofproductionofspeechsounds.

Coarticulation:akindofphoneticprocessinwhichsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved.Coarticulationcanbefurtherdividedintoanticipatorycoarticulationandperseverativecoarticulation.

Voicing:pronouncingasound(usuallyavoweloravoicedconsonant)byvibratingthevocalcords.

Broadandnarrowtranscription:theuseofasimplesetofsymbolsintranscriptioniscalledbroadtranscription;theuseofasimplesetofsymbolsintranscriptioniscalledbroadtranscription;while,theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasnarrowtranscription.

Consonant:aresoundsegmentsproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacetodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.

Phoneme:theabstractelementofsound,identifiedasbeingdistinctiveinaparticularlanguage.

Allophone:anyofthedifferentformsofaphoneme(e.g.<th>isanallophoneof/t/inEnglish.When/t/occursinwordslikestep,itisunaspirated<t>.Both<th>and<t>areallophonesofthe

phoneme/t/.

Vowel:aresoundsegmentsproducedwithoutsuchobstruction,sonoturbulenceofatotalstoppingoftheaircanbeperceived.

Mannerofarticulation;intheproductionofconsonants,mannerofarticulationreferstotheactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthusthewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthevocaltract.

Placeofarticulation:intheproductionofconsonants,placeofarticulationreferstowhereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionofair.

Distinctivefeatures:atermofphonology,i.e.apropertywhichdistinguishesonephonemefromanother.

Complementarydistribution:therelationbetweentowspeechsoundsthatneveroccurinthesameenvironment.Allophonesofthesamephonemeareusuallyincomplementarydistribution.

IPA:theabbreviationofInternationalPhoneticAlphabet,whichisdevisedbytheInternationalPhoneticAssociationin1888thenithasundergoinganumberofrevisions.IPAisacomprisedsystememployingsymbolsofallsources,suchasRomansmallletters,italicsuprighted,obsoleteletters,Greekletters,diacritics,etc.

Suprasegmental:suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsupra-segmentalfeaturesaresyllable,stress,tone,andintonation.

Suprasegmental:aspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprinciplesuprasegmentalfeaturesaresyllable,stress,tone,andintonation.

morpheme:thesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.

compoundonlymorphemicwordswhichconsistwhollyoffreemorphemes,suchasclassroom,blackboard,snow-white,etc.

inflection:themanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.

affix:thecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).

derivation:differentfromcompounds,derivationshowstherelationbetweenrootsandaffixes.

root:thebasefromofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallassofidentity.

allomorph:anyofthedifferentformofamorpheme.Forexample,inEnglishthepluralmorphemeisbutitispronounceddifferentlyindifferentenvironmentsas/s/incats,as/z/indogsandas/iz/inclasses.So/s/,/z/,and/iz/areallallomorphsofthepluralmorpheme.

42Stem:anymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.

boundmorpheme:anelementofmeaningwhichisstructurallydependentontheworlditisaddedto,e.g.thepluralmorphemein“dog's”.

freemorpheme:anelementofmeaningwhichtakestheformofanindependentword.

lexeme:Aseparateunitofmeaning,usuallyintheformofaword(e.g.“doginthemanger”)

lexicon:alistofallthewordsinalanguageassignedtovariouslexicalcategoriesandprovidedwithsemanticinterpretation.

grammaticalword:wordexpressinggrammaticalmeanings,suchconjunction,prepositions,articlesandpronouns.

lexicalword:wordhavinglexicalmeanings,thatis,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andverbs.

open-class:awordwhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andmanyadverbs.

blending:arelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords.

loanword:aprocessinwhichbothformandmeaningareborrowedwithonlyaslightadaptation,insomecases,toehphonologicalsystemofthenewlanguagethattheyenter.

loanblend:aprocessinwhichpartoftheformisnativeandpartisborrowed,butthemeaningisfullyborrowed.

leanshift:aprocessinwhichthemeaningisborrowed,buttheformisnative.

acronym:ismadeupformthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodifiedheadword.

loss:thedisappearanceoftheverysoundasamorphemeinthephonologicalsystem.

back-formation:anabnormaltypeof

word-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimaginedaffixfromalongformalreadyinthelanguage.

assimilation:thechangeofasoundasaresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsound,whichismorespecificallycalled.“contact”or“contiguous”assimilation.

dissimilation:theinfluenceexercised.Byonesoundsegmentuponthearticulationofanother,sothatthesoundsbecomelessalike,ordifferent.

folketymology:achangeinformofawordorphrase,resultingfromanincorrectpopularnationoftheoriginormeaningofthetermorfromtheinfluenceofmorefamiliartermsmistakenlytakentobeanalogous.

category:partsofspeechandfunction,suchastheclassificationofwordsintermsofpartsofspeech,theidentificationoftermsofpartsofspeech,theidentificationoffunctionsofwordsintermofsubject,predicate,etc.

concord:alsoknownasagreement,istherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsinasyntacticrelationshipshouldagreewitheachotherintermsofsomecategories.

syntagmaticrelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequence,orbetweenelementswhichareallpresent.

paradigmaticrelation:arelationholdingbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinastructure,orbetweenoneelementpresentandheothersabsent.

immediateconstituentanalysis:theanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents---wordgroups(orphrases),whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimateconstituentsarereached.

endocentricconstruction:oneconstructionwhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalent,orapproachingequivalence,tooneofitsconstituents,whichservesasthecenter,orhead,ofthewhole.Henceanendocentricconstructionisalsoknownasaheadedconstruction.66.exocentricconstruction:aconstructionwhosedistributionisnotfunctionallyequivalenttoanytoanyofits

constituents.

deepstructure:theabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstruction,i.e.theunderlyinglevelofstructuralrelationsbetweenitsdifferentconstituents,suchastherelationbetween,theunderlyingsubjectanditsverb,oraverbanditsobject.

surfacestructure:thefinalstageinthesyntacticderivationofaconstruction,whichcloselycorrespondstothestructuralorganizationofaconstructionpeopleactuallyproduceandreceive.

c-command:oneofthesimilarities,orofthemoregeneralfeatures,inthesetwogovernmentrelations,istechnicallycalledconstituentcommand,c-commandforshort.

governmentandbindingtheory:itisthefourthperiodofdevelopmentChomsky'sTGGrammar,whichconsistsofX-bartheme:thebasis,orthestartingpoint,oftheutterance.

communicativedynamism:theextenttowhichthesentenceelementcontributestothedevelopmentofthecommunication.

ideationalfunction:thespeaker'sexperienceoftherealworld,includingtheinnerworldofhisownconsciousness.

interpersonalfunction:theuseoflanguagetoestablishandmaintainsocialrelations:fortheexpressionofsocialroles,whichincludethecommunicationrolescreatedbylanguageitself;andalsoforgettingthingsdone,bymeansoftheinteractionbetweenonepersonandanother.

textualfunction:theuseoflanguagetheprovideformakinglinkswithitselfandwithfeaturesofthesituationinwhichitisused.

conceptualmeaning:thecentralpartofmeaning,whichcontainslogical,cognitive,ordenotativecontent.

denotation:thecoresenseofawordoraphrasethatrelatesittophenomenaintherealworld.

connotation:aterminacontrastwithdenotation,meaningthepropertiesoftheentityaworddenotes.

reference:theuseoflanguagetoexpressapropostion,meaningthepropertiesoftheentityaworddenotes.

reference:theuseoflanguagetoexpressaproposition,i.e.totalkaboutthingsincontext.

sense:theliteralmeaningofawordoranexpression,independentofsituationalcontext.

synonymy:isthetechnicalnameforthesamenessrelation.

complentaryantonymy:membersofapairincomplementaryantonymyarecomplementarytoeachfieldcompletely,suchasmale,female,absent.

gradableantongymy:membersofthiskindaregradable,suchaslong:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.

converseantonymy:aspecialkindofantonymyinthatmembersofapairdonotconstituteapositive-negativeopposition,suchasbuy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.

relationalopposites:converseantonymyinreciprocalsocialroles,kinshiprelations,andtemporalandspatialrelations.Therearealwaystwoentitiesinvolved.Onepresupposestheother.Theshorter,better;words.etcareinstancesofrelationalopposites.

hyponymy:arelationbetweentowwords,inwhichthemeaningofoneword(thesuperordinate)isincludedinthemeaningofanotherword(thehyponym).

superordinate:theupperterminhyponymy,i.e.theclassname.Asuperordinateusuallyhasseveralhyponyms.Underanimal,forexample,therearecats,dogs,pigs,etc.

semanticcomponent:adistinguishableelementofmeaninginawordwithtwovalues,e.g.<+human>

compositionality:aprincipleforsentenceanalysis,inwhichthemeaningofasentencedependsonthemeaningsoftheconstituentwordsandthewaytheyarecombined.

selectionrestriction:semanticrestrictionsofthenounphrasesthataparticularlexicalitemcantake,e.g.regretrequiresahumansubject.

prepositionallogic:alsoknownasprepositionalcalculusorsententialcalculus,isthestudyofthetruthconditionsforpropositions:howthetruthofacompositepropositionsandtheconnectionbetweenthem.

proposition;whatistalkaboutinanutterance,thatpartofthespeechactwhichhastodowithreference.

predicatelogic:alsopredicatecalculus,whichstudiestheinternalstructureofsimple.

assimilationtheory:language(sound,word,syntax,etc.)changeorprocessbywhichfeaturesofoneelementchangetomatchthoseofanotherthatprecedesorfollows.

cohorttheory:theoryoftheperceptionofspokenwordsproposedinthemid-1980s.Itsaaumesa“recognitionlexicon”inwhicheachwordisrepresentedbyafullandindependent“recognitionelement”.Whenthesystemreceivesthebeginningofarelevantacousticsignal,allelementsmatchingitarefullyactivated,and,asmoreofthesignalisreceived,thesystemtriestomatchitindependentlywitheachofthem,Whereveritfailstheelementisdeactivated;thisprocesscontinuesuntilonlyoneremainsactive.

contexteffect:thiseffecthelppeoplerecognizeawordmorereadilywhentherecedingwordsprovideanappropriatecontextforit.

frequencyeffect:describestheadditionaleasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsmorefrequentusageinlanguage.

inferenceincontext:anyconclusiondrawnfromasetofproposition,fromsomethingsomeonehassaid,andsoon.Itincludesthingsthat,whilenotfollowinglogically,areimplied,inanordinarysense,e.g.inaspecificcontext.

immediateassumption:thereaderissupposedtocarryouttheprogressesrequiredtounderstandeachwordanditsrelationshiptopreviouswordsinthesentenceassoonasthatwordinencountered.

languageperception:languageawarenessofthingsthroughthephysicalsenses,esp.sight.

languagecomprehension:oneofthethreestrandofpsycholinguisticresearch,whichstudiestheunderstandingoflanguage.

languageproduction:agoal-directedactivity,inthesensethatpeoplespeakandwriteinordertomakefriends,influencepeople,conveyinformationandsoon.

languageproduction:agoal-directedactivity,inthesensethatpeoplespeakandwriteinordertomakefriends,influencepeople,conveyinformationandsoon.

lexicalambiguity:ambiguityexplainedbyreferencetolexicalmeanings:e.g.thatofIsawabat,whereabatmightrefertoananimalor,amongothers,stabletennisbat.

macroproposition:generalpropositionsusedtoformanoverallmacrostructureofthestory.

modular:whichaassumesthatthemindisstructuredintoseparatemodulesorcomponents,eachgovernedbyitsownprinciplesandoperatingindependentlyofothers.

parsing:thetaskofassigningwordstopartsofspeechwiththeirappropriateaccidents,traditionallye.g.topupilslearninglatingrammar.

propositions:whateverisseenasexpressedbyasentencewhichmakesastatement.Itisapropertyofpropositionsthattheyhavetruthvalues.

psycholinguistics:isconcernedprimarilywithinvestigatingthepsychologicalrealityoflinguisticstructure.Psycholinguisticscanbedividedintocognitivepsycholinguistics(beingconcernedaboveallwithmakinginferencesaboutthecontentofhumanmind,andexperimentalpsycholinguistics(beingconcernedsomehowwhthempiricalmatters,suchasspeedofresponsetoaparticularword).

psycholinguisticreality:therealityofgrammar,etc.asapurportedaccountofstructuresrepresentedinthemindofaspeaker.Oftenopposed,indiscussionofthemeritsofalternativegrammars,tocriteriaofsimplicity,elegance,andinternalconsistency.

schemataintext:packetsofstoredknowledgeinlanguageprocessing.

storystructure:thewayinwhichvariouspartsofstoryarearrangedororganized.

writingprocess:aseriesofactionsoreventsthatarepartofawritingorcontinuingdevelopment.

communicativecompetence:aspeaker'sknowledgeofthetotalsetofrules,conventions,erningtheskilleduseoflanguageinasociety.DistinguishedbyD.Hymesinthelate1960sfromChomsley'sconceptofcompetence,intherestrictedsenseofknowledgeofagrammar.

genderdifference:adifferenceinaspeechbetweenmenandwomenis“genderdifference”

linguisticdeterminism:oneofthetwopointsin

Sapir-Whorfhypothesis,i.e.languagedeterminesthought.

linguisticrelativity:oneofthetwopointsinSpir-Whorfhypothesis,i.e.there'snolimittothestructuraldiversityoflanguages.

linguisticsexism:manydifferencesbetweenmeandwomeninlanguageusearebroughtaboutbynothinglessthanwomen'splaceinsociety.

sociolinguisticsoflanguage:oneofthetwothingsinsociolinguistics,inwhichwewanttolookatstructuralthingsbypayingattentiontolanguageuseinasocialcontext.

sociolinguisticsofsociety;oneofthetwothingsinsociolinguistics,inwhichwetrytounderstandsociologicalthingsofsocietybyexamining

linguisticphenomenaofaspeakingcommunity.

variationistlinguistics:abranchoflinguistics,whichstudiestherelationshipbetweenspeakers'socialstartsandphonologicalvariations.

performative:anutterancebywhichaspeakerdoessomethingdoessomething,asapposedtoaconstative,bywhichmakesastatementwhichmaybetrueorfalse.

constative:anutterancebywhichaspeakerexpressesapropositionwhichmaybetrueorfalse.

locutionaryact:theactofsayingsomething;it'sanactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexicon,andphonology.Namely,theutteranceofasentencewithdeterminatesenseandreference.

illocutionaryact:theactperformedinsayingsomething;itsforceisidenticalwiththespeaker'sintention.

perlocutionaryact:theactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething,it'stheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.

conversationalimplicature:theextrameaningnotcontainedintheliteralutterances,understandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeaker'sknowledgeorknowswhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofthefourmaximsofthecooperativeprinciple.

entailment:relationbetweenpropositionsoneofwhichnecessarilyfollowsfromtheother:e.g.“Maryisrunning”entails,amongotherthings,“Maryisnotstandingstill”.

ostensivecommunication:acompletecharacterizationofcommunicationisthatitisostensive-infer-ential.

communicativeprincipleofrelevance:everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance.

relevance:apropertythatanyutterance,orapropositionthatitcommunicates,must,inthenatureofcommunication,necessarilyhave.

Q-principle:oneofthetwoprinciplesinHorn'sscale,i.e.Makeyourcontributionnecessary(Gradation,Quantity2,Manner);Saynomorethanyoumust(givenQ).

divisionofpragmaticlabour:theuseofamarkedcreativelycomplexand/orexpressionwhenacorrespondingunmarkeda(simpler,less“effortful”)alternateexpressionisavailabletendstobeinterpretedasconveyingamarkedmessage(onewhichtheunmarkedalternativewouldnotorcouldnothaveconveyed).

constraintsonHornscales:thehearer-basedo-Principleisasufficiencyconditioninthesensethatinformationprovidedisthemostthespeakerisableto.

third-personnarrator:ofthenarratorisnotacharacterinthefictionalworld,heorsheisusuallycalledathird-personnarrator.

I-narrator:thepersonwhotellsthestorymayalsobeacharacterinthefictionalworldofthestory,relatingthestoryaftertheevent.

directspeech:akindofspeechpresentationinwhichthecharactersaidinitsfullestform.

indirectspeech:akindofspeechpresentationinwhichthecharactersaidinitsfullestform.

indirectspeech:akindofspeechpresentationwhichisanamalgamofdirectspeech.

narrator'srepresentationofspeechacts:aminimalistkindofpresentationinwhichapartofpassagecanbeseenasasummeryofalongerpieceofdiscourse,andthereforeevenmorebackgroundedthanindirectspeechrepresentationwouldbe.

narrator'srepresentationofthoughtacts:akindofcategoriesusedbynoveliststorepresentthethoughtsoftheirofcharactersareexactlyasthatusedtopresentspeechacts.Forexample,sheconsideredhisunpunctuality.

indirectthought:akindofcategoriesusedbynovelisttorepresentthethoughtsoftheircharactersareexactlyasthatusedtopresentindirectspeech.Forexample,shethoughtthathewouldbelate.

feeindirectspeech:afurthercategorywhichcanoccur,whichisanamalgamofdirectspeechandindirectspeechfeatures.

narrator'srepresentationofthoughtacts:akindofthecategoriesusedbynoveliststopresentthethoughtsoftheircharactersareexactlythesameasthoseusedtorepresentaspeeche.g.Hespentthedaythinking.

indirectthought:akindofcategoriesusedbynovelisttorepresentthethoughtsoftheircharactersareexactlyasthatusedtopresentindirectspeech.Forexample,shethoughtthathewouldbelate.

feeindirectspeech:afurthercategorywhichcanoccur,whichisanamalgamofdirectspeechandindirectspeechfeatures.

narrator'srepresentationofthought:thecategoriesusedbynoveliststopresentthethoughtsoftheircharactersareexactlythesameasthoseusedtorepresentaspeeche.g.Hespentthedaythinking.

freeindirectthought:thecategoriesusedbynoveliststorepresentthethoughtsoftheircharactersareexactlythesameasthoseusedtorepresentaspeech,e.g.Hewasboundtobelate.

directthought:categoriesusedbynoveliststorepresentthethoughtsoftheircharactersareexactlythesameasthoseusedtorepresentaspeech..

computersystem:themachineitselftogetherwithakeyboard,printer,screen,diskdrives,programs,etc.

computerliteracy:thosepeoplewhohavesufficientknowledgeandskillintheuseofcomputersandcomputersoftware.

computerlinguistics:abranchofappliedlinguistics,dealingwithcomputerprocessingofhumanlanguage.

Call:computer-assistedlanguage

learning(call),referstotheuseofacomputerintheteachingorlearningofasecondorforeignlanguage.

programmedinstruction:theuseofcomputerstomonitorstudentprogress,todirectstudentsintoappropriatelessons,material,etc.

localareanetwork:arecomputerslinkedtogetherbycablesinaclassroom,lab,orbuilding.Theyofferteachersanovelapproachforcreatingnewactivitiesforstudentsthatprovidemoretimeandexperiencewithtargetlanguage.

CD-ROM:computerdisk-readonlymemoryallowshugeamountofinformationtobestoredononediskwithquichaccesstotheinformation.Studentsandteacherscanaccessinformationquicklyandefficientlyforuseinandoutoftheclassroom.

machinetranslation:referstotheuseofmachine(usuallycomputer)totranslatetextsfromonelanguagetoanother.

concordance:theuseofcomputertosearchforaparticularword,sequenceofwords.orperhapsevenapartofspeechinatext.Thecomputercanalsoreceiveallexamplesofaparticularword,usuallyinacontext,whichisafurtheraidtothelinguist.Itcanalsocalculatethenumberofoccurrencesofthewordsothatinformationonthe

frequencyofthewordmaybegathered.

annotation:ifcorporaissaidtobeunannotated-itappearsinitsexistingrawstateofplaintext,whereasannotatedcorporahasbeenenhancedwithvarioustypeoflinguisticinformation,

annotation:ifcorporaissaidtobeunannotated—itappearsinitsexistingrawstateofplaintext,whereasannotatedcorporahasbee