传播学经典理论英文版

....传播学经典理论英文版[中文批注]目录一、OpinionLeaders意见领袖 二、5WBox5w理论 2三、TheBiasofCommunication传媒偏向论 四、TheSpiralofSilence沉默的螺旋 3五、Gatekeeper把关人理论 4六、Selectiveexposurehypothesis选择性接触假说 七、KnowledgeGapTheory知识沟假5八、AgendaSettingTheory议程设置理论 5九、Magicbullettheory魔弹论 5十、Information（Innovation）DiffusionTheory信息（创新）扩散论 十一、Usesandgratificationstheory(UGT)使用与满足理论 7十二、Cultivationtheory教养理论 8十三、Limited-EffectsTheory有限效果论 8十四、MarshallMcluhanMediaTheory麦克卢汉的媒介理论 2/11一、OpinionLeaders意见领袖Activeininformationnetworks,havemanyinformationchannels,sotheycanoftenprovideinformationandadviceforothersandcaninfluenceothers.形成过程中起着重要的中介或过滤的作用，由他们将信息扩散给受众，形成信息传递的两级传播。二、5WBox5w理论1.Whocommunicatestowhom?(sourcesandreceivers)2.Whycommunicate?(functionandpurposes)3.Howdoescommunicationtakeplace?(channels,languages,codes)4.Whatabout?(content,references,typesofinformation)5.Whataretheoutcomesofcommunication(intendorunintended),forinformation,understandings,actiontheRiseofMassMdia美国学者H·拉斯维尔于1948年在《传播在社会中的结构与功能》一篇论文中，首次提出了构成传播过程的五种基本要素，并按照一定结构顺序将它们排列，形成了后来人们称之“五W模式”或“拉斯维尔程式”的过程模式。这五个W分别是英语中五个疑问代词的第一个字母，即：Who（谁）SaysWhat（说了什么）InWhichChannel（通过什么渠道）ToWhom（向谁说）WithWhatEffect（有什么效果。三、TheBiasofCommunication传媒偏向论Innis’centralfocusisthesocialhistoryofcommunicationmedia;hebelievedthattherelativestabilityofculturesdependsonthebalanceandproportionoftheirmedia.Tobeginourinquiryintothisarea,hesuggestsweaskthreebasicquestions:Howdospecificcommunicationtechnologiesoperate?Whatassumptionsdotheytakefromandcontributetosociety?Whatformsofpowerdotheyencourage?ForInnis,akeytosocialchangeisfoundinthedevelopmentofcommunicationmedia.Heclaimsthateachmediumembodiesabiasintermsoftheorganizationandcontrolofinformation.Anyempireorsocietyisgenerallyconcernedwithdurationovertimeandextensioninspace.Time-biasedmedia,suchasstoneandclay,aredurableandheavy.Sincetheyaredifficulttomove,theydonotencourageterritorialexpansion;however,sincetheyhavealonglife,theydoencouragetheextensionofempireovertime.Innisassociatedthesemediawiththecustomary,thesacred,andthemoral.Time-biasedmediafacilitatethedevelopmentofsocialhierarchies,asarchetypallyexemplifiedbyancientEgypt.ForInnis,speechisatime-biasedmedium.Space-biasedmediaarelightandportable;theycanbetransportedoverlargedistances.Theyareassociatedwithsecularandterritorialsocieties;theyfacilitatetheexpansionofempireoverspace.Paperissuchamedium;itisreadilytransported,buthasarelativelyshortlifespan.比如，石版文字和泥版文字耐久，它们承载的文字具有永恒的性质，容易传承。但是，它们不容易运输，不容易生产，不容易使用，因而不利于空间上的传播。相反，莎草纸和纸张轻巧，容易运输，使用方便，能够远距离传播迅息，然而它们传播的迅息却限于当下，就比较短暂。下面这段话，痛快淋漓地阐明伊尼斯“传播偏向论”的意旨、要害，说明媒介的性质和偏向，并且说明媒介为何有这些偏向。他说：“倚重时间的媒介，其性质耐久，羊皮纸、黏土和石头即为其例……倚重空间的媒介，耐久性比较逊色，质地比国时，必须立足在空间和时间两个方面。我们要克服媒介的偏向，既不过分倚重时间，也不过分倚重空间。”强调媒介偏向、时间偏向和空间偏向的关系，并指出媒介与国家僚体制和宗教的关系。他说：却倚重时间，忽略空间。”四、TheSpiralofSilence沉默的螺旋ThespiralofsilenceisapoliticalscienceandmasscommunicationtheorypropoundedbytheGermanpoliticalscientistElisabethNoelle-Neumann.Spiralofsilencetheorydescribestheprocessbywhichoneopinionbecomesdominantasthosewhoperceivetheiropiniontobeintheminoritydonotspeakupbecausesocietythreatensindividualswithfearofisolation.Theassessmentofone'ssocialenvironmentmaynotalwayscorrelatewithreality.Foracontroversialissue,peoplewillwatchthe"climateofopinion"beforetheymakecomments.judgingtheiropinionwhetherthe"majorityopinion",whenpeoplefeelthattheirviewsare"majority"orinthe"advantage",itwilltendtoboldlyexpressthisopinion;whenfoundhisviewsare"afew"orina"disadvantage"theyoftenremain"silent."Themorepeopleremainsilent,themorefeelthattheirviewsarenotwellaccepted,thusaresult,themoretheytendtoremainsilent.Repeatedseveraltimes,theyformrepresenting"dominant"statusviewsandmorepowerful,whileholding"inferior"opinionsofpeoplesoundmoreandmoreweak,suchacycle,forminga"onemoreloudly,andtheothermoreandmoresilentspiraldowntheprocess."队中“强势”意见的趋同后的结果。需要注意的是：“强势”意见所强调的东西，不一定就是正确的。当团队中的少数意见与“多数”意见不同的时候，少数有可能屈于“优势意见”的压力，表面上采取认同，但实际上内心仍然坚持自己的观点，这就可能出现某些团队成员公开“表达的意见”与团队成员“自己的意见”不一致。要跳出沉默的螺旋，唯一的出路就是尊重少数派，聆听反对者的声音。五、Gatekeeper把关人理论Lewinwasfirstproposedthisidea.Agatekeeperisahumanwhocontrolsaccesstosomething,forexampleviaacitygate.Inthelate20thcenturythetermcameintometaphoricaluse,referringtoindividualswhodecidewhetheragivenmessagewillbedistributedbyamassmedium.Theinformationwasscreenedandfilteredbycommunicator.Communicatorsdecidewhatwecanseeandhowwecansee.叫做把关（即守门，凡有这种传播行为的人就叫做把关人（守门人。六、Selectiveexposurehypothesis选择性接触假说Audienceinthecontactinformationofthemassmediaisnotindiscriminate,butmorewillingtochoosethecontentsthatarethesameorsimilartotheiropinion,andforthecontentsofthisconfrontationorconflict,thereisatendencytoavoid.受众的群体背景可以分成两个方面，一是人口统计学意义的群体，包括性别、年龄、籍贯、民族、职业、学历等等；二是社会关系意义上的群体，如家庭、单位、团体、政治、经济和文化的归属阶层，宗教信仰群体等等。受众个人的群体属性不同，意味着他们所处的时代、社会环境、社会化的条件、社会地位、价值和信念、对事物的立场观点和看法、心理特点和文化背景都有很大差异，对大众传媒信息的需求、接触和反应方式也是千差万别。七、KnowledgeGapTheory知识沟假说Becausethepeoplewhohavehighereconomicstatusisusuallymuchfastertogetinformationthanthoseoflowsocioeconomicstatus,therefore,themoreinformationistransmittedbythemassmedia,theknowledgegapbetweenthetwotypesofpeopleismoretendtoexpand.基本观点：类人之间的知识沟扩大，而不是缩小。一段时间内媒介大量宣传某话题，文化程度较高的人比低的人以更快的速度吸取该话题的知识。AgendaSettingTheoryMassmediareportanissueornotdirectlyaffectpeople'sperceptiononthesubject.Massmediahighlightsanissuewillcausepeopletopaymoreattentiontotheissue.Massmediaonarangeoftopicsgivedifferentlevelsofcoverageaccordingtoacertainorderofpriority,itwillaffectpeople’sjudgmentaboutimportanceoftheseissues.19681972年提出了议程设置理论，该理论认为大众传播往往不能决定人们对某一事件或意见的具体看法，但可以通过提供给信息和安排相关的议人们去想什么。九、Magicbullettheory魔弹论Themessagesentbythemassmediaislikeamagicbullet,buttheaudienceasthetargetwithoutprotection,sotheaudiencecaneasilybeknockeddownbythemessagesentbythemassmedia.Thetheoryisthatmassmediahavepowerfulforcewhichcandirectlyaffectaudience.“魔弹论”：又称“皮下注射理论”，这是一种有关媒介具有强大效果的观点。它的核心内容是：传播媒介拥有不可抵它们能够左右人们的态度和意见，甚至直接支配他们的行动。这种理论流行于第一次世界大战至20世纪30年代，到406/11为宣传的实践所打破。十、Information（Innovation）DiffusionTheory信息（创新）扩散论Information （ Innovation DiffusionTheoryisatheorythatseekstoexplainhow,why,andatwhatratenewideasandtechnologyspreadthroughcultures.EverettRogers,aprofessorofcommunicationstudies,popularizedthetheoryinhisbookDiffusionofInnovations;Rogersarguesthatdiffusionistheprocessbywhichaninnovationiscommunicatedthroughcertainchannelsovertimeamongtheparticipantsinasocialsystem.Theoriginsofthediffusionofinnovationstheoryarevariedandspanmultipledisciplines.Rogersproposesthatfourmainelementsinfluencethespreadofanewidea:theinnovationitself,communicationchannels,time,andasocialsystem.Thisprocessreliesheavilyonhumancapital.Theinnovationmustbewidelyadoptedinordertoself-sustain.Withintherateofadoption,thereisapointatwhichaninnovationreachescriticalmass.Thecategoriesofadoptersare:innovators,earlyadopters,earlymajority,latemajority,andlaggards.Diffusionmanifestsitselfindifferentwaysinvariousculturesandfieldsandishighlysubjecttothetypeofadoptersandinnovation-decisionprocess.创新推广理论（InnovationDiffusionTheory）又译成创新传播理论、创新散布理论、创新扩散理论、革新传播理论20世纪初法国社会学家、哲学家GabrielTarde（theLawofImitation）一书。最早将现代创新推广理论运用于实践研究中的是美国爱荷华州立大学的 Ryan和Gross于1943年进行的一个农业研究项目Ryan和Gross从农业社会学的角度出发，对创新技术的一些采用者进行访谈，以此来考察与采用技术关的一系列因素。这种基于访谈形式的研究方法从此成为创新推广研究的一种主要研究法。而最早将扩散推广理论作为传播学内容进行研究的，同时在这方面的研究中最负盛名的当首推传播学家罗杰斯(EverettM.Rogers)及其著作《创新推广》(DiffusionofInnovation)。《创新推广》初版发行于1960年，现在最新的版本为1995年修订版。罗杰斯在书中认为，创新推广是指一项新事物通过特定的传播通道，逐渐为某些特定社群成员所了解与采用的过程，也是推广作用的应用。书中所论述到的创新推广理论中，其中有几点受到广泛关注：（一）创新的推广决策过程，包括五个阶段1(Knowledge)接触创新并略知其如何运作2有关创新的态度形成3、决策(Decision)确定采用或拒绝一项创新活动4、实施(Implementation)——投入创新的运用5、确认(Confirmation)——强化或撤回关于创新的决定（二）受采用的创新的特征1、相对优越性——一项创新优越于它所取代的旧观念的程度；2——一项创新与现有价值观、以往经验预期采用者的需求同存的程度；3——用的难度；4、可实验性——一项创新在有限基础上可被试验的程度；十一、Usesandgratificationstheory(UGT)使用与满足理论Usesandgratificationstheory(UGT)isanapproachtounderstandingwhyandhowpeopleactivelyseekoutspecificmediatosatisfyspecificneeds.UGTisanaudience-centeredapproachtounderstandingmasscommunication.Divergingfromothermediaeffecttheoriesthatquestion"whatdoesmediadotopeople?",UGTfocuseson"whatdopeopledowithmedia?"Thiscommunicationtheoryispositivisticinitsapproach,basedinthesocio-psychologicalcommunicationtradition,andfocusesoncommunicationatthemassmediascale.ThedrivingquestionofUGTis:Whydopeopleusemediaandwhatdotheyusethemfor?UGTdiscusseshowusersdeliberatelychoosemediathatwillsatisfygivenneedsandallowonetoenhanceknowledge,relaxation,socialinteractions/companionship,diversion,orescape.Itassumesthataudiencemembersarenotpassiveconsumersofmedia.Rather,theaudiencehaspowerovertheirmediaconsumptionandassumesanactiveroleininterpretingandintegratingmediaintotheirownlives.Unlikeothertheoreticalperspectives,UGTholdsthataudiencesareresponsibleforchoosingmediatomeettheirdesiresandneedstoachievegratification.Thistheorywouldthenimplythatthemediacompeteagainstotherinformationsourcesforviewers'gratification.UGThasaheuristicvaluetodaybecauseitgivescommunicationscholarsa"perspectivethroughwhichanumberofideasandtheoriesaboutmediachoice,consumption,andevenimpactcanbeviewed使用与满足理论（UsesandGratificationstheory）是认为阅听人（mediaaudience）可以主动使用媒体来寻找可满听人使用媒介的动机。使用与满足理论是由ElihuKatz、JayBlumlerMickaelGurevitch等学者于1974年版的《大众传播媒体的使用》（TheusesofMassCommunication）一书中所提。此理论强调以「主动的阅听人」为中心，反对媒体万能论以来被动接收者的概念，认为阅听人绝非被动的接收者，强调阅听人和媒体之间的自愿性和选择性。此一理论开启了新的研究方向，开始了阅听人如何运用传媒的研究，并持续发展许多的相关研究。8/11十二、Cultivationtheory教养理论Cultivationtheoryisasocialtheorywhichexaminesthelong-termeffectsoftelevision."Theprimarypropositionofcultivationtheorystatesthatthemoretimepeoplespend"living"inthetelevisionworld,themorelikelytheyaretobelievesocialrealityportrayedontelevision.Cultivationleavespeoplewithamisperceptionofwhatistrueinourworld.DevelopedbyGeorgeGerbnerandLarryGrossoftheUniversityofPennsylvania,cultivationtheoryderivedfromseverallarge-scaleresearchprojectsaspartofanoverallresearchprojectentitled'CulturalIndicators'.ThepurposeoftheCulturalIndicatorsprojectwastoidentifyandtrackthe'cultivated'effectsoftelevisiononviewers.Theywere"concernedwiththeeffectsoftelevisionprogramming(particularlyviolentprogramming)ontheattitudesandbehaviorsoftheAmericanpublic."GerbnerassertsthattheoverallconcernabouttheeffectsoftelevisiononaudiencesstemmedfromtheunprecedentedcentralityoftelevisioninAmericanculture."Thetheoryclearlypositsthatthecultivationeffectoccursonlyafterlong-term,cumulativeexposuretotelevision."HeclaimedthatbecauseTVcontainssomuchviolence,"peoplewhospendthemosttimeinfrontofthetubedevelopanexaggeratedbeliefinameanandscaryworld."Hepositedthattelevisionasamassmediumofcommunicationhadformedintoacommonsymbolicenvironmentthatbounddiversecommunitiestogether,socializingpeopleintostandardizedrolesandbehaviors."Today,theTVsetisakeymemberofthehousehold,withvirtuallyunlimitedaccesstoeverypersoninthefamily."Hecomparedthepoweroftelevisiontothepowerofreligion,sayingthattelevisionwastomodernsocietywhatreligiononcewasinearliertimes.CultivationAnalysisisapositivistictheory,meaningitassumestheexistenceofobjectiverealityandvalue-neutralresearch.AstudyconductedbyJenningsBryantandDorinaMiron(2004),whichsurveyedalmost2,000articlespublishedinthethreetopmasscommunicationjournalssince1956,foundthatCultivationAnalysiswasthethirdmostfrequentlyutilizedtheory,showingthatitcontinuestobeoneofthemostpopulartheoriesinmasscommunicationresearch.教养理论（n，又称培养理论、涵化理论、涵化假设、涵化分析，格伯纳等人认为，在现代社会目中描绘的“主观现实”与实际存在的客观现实之间发生着很大的偏离。同时，这种影响不是短期的，而是一个长期十三、Limited-EffectsTheory有限效果论Mediararelydirectlyinfluenceindividuals.Thereisatwo-stepflowofmediainfluence.9/11Bythetimemostpeoplebecomeadults,theyhavedevelopedstronglyheldgroupcommitmentssuchaspoliticalpartyandreligiousaffiliations.Theseaffiliationsprovideaneffectivebarrieragainstmediainfluence.Whenmediaeffectsdooccur,theyaremodestandisolated.群体归属关系和群体规范，大众传播过程中的人际影响等等。十四、MarshallMcluhanMediaTheory麦克卢汉的媒介理论TheextensionsofmanMcluhan ’sideathatmedialiterallyextendsight,hearing,andtouchthroughtimeandspace.2.TheMediumIstheMassageMcluhan ’sideathenewformsofmediatransformourexperienceofourselvesandoursocietyandthisinfluenceisultimatelymoreimportantthanthecontentofspecificmessages.3.TheGlobalVillageMcluhan ’sconceptionofanewformofsocialorganizationemergingasinstantaneouselectronicmediatietheentireworldintoonegreatsocial,politicalandculturalsystem4."Hot"and"cool"mediaInthefirstpartofUnderstandingMedia,McLuhanalsostatedthatdifferentmediainvitedifferentdegreesofparticipationonthepartofapersonwhochoosestoconsumeamedium.Somemedia,suchasfilm,were"hot"-thatis,theyenhanceonesinglesense,inthiscasevision,insuchamannerthatapersondoesnotneedtoexertmucheffortinfillinginthedetailsofamovieimage.McLuhancontrastedthiswith"cool"TV,whichheclaimedrequiresmoreeffortonthepartofviewertodeterminemeaning,andcomics,whichduetotheirminimalpresentationofvisualdetailrequireahighdegreeofefforttofillindetailsthatthecartoonistmayhaveintendedtoportray.AmovieisthussaidbyMcLuhantobe"hot",intensifyingonesinglesense"highdefinition",demandingaviewer'sattention,andacomicbooktobe"cool"and"lowdefinition",requiringmuchmoreconsciousparticipationbythereadertoextractvalue.麦克卢汉的媒介理论：（一）媒介是人体的延伸（二）媒介即讯息（三）热媒介与冷媒介10/11（四）地球村（五）对麦克卢汉媒介理论的总体评价（一）媒介是人体的延伸1、内容媒介是人体感官能力的延伸和扩展:文字印刷媒介是视觉能力的延伸，广播是听觉能力的延伸，电视是视觉、听觉和触觉能力的延伸。2、评价在"洞"基础上的一种思辨性的推论。（二）媒介即讯息 1、内容媒介本身才是真正的讯息，也就是说，人类有了某种媒介才可能从事与之相应的传播或其他社会活动，因此真正社会后果。、评价意义:（1）这是麦克卢汉对传播媒介技术在人类社会发展中的地位和作用的高度概括。（2）强调媒体是社会发展的动力，也是区分不同社会形态的标志缺陷:——极端性——媒介的社会占有结构，所有制关系如何，也反过来规定媒介活动的特点和作用性质。（三）热媒介与冷媒介1、含义广播、电影等。需要受众参与其中的程度低电话等。2、评价的心理行为反应也各具特点，对媒介的研究应把这些因素考虑在内，但是这种分类的确有些牵强而且似是而非。四）地球村、内容:在自然社会，口语是主要以传播媒介，人的交往受距离的限制，文学印刷媒介产生后，人类由"耳朵的社会"进入"眼睛的社会"人与人之间联系变得疏远。电子媒介的出现与普及改变了这种状况，它们以接近于实时的传播速度和强烈的现场感、目击感把遥远的世界拉得很近"村"，任何国家和社会都是村庄的一部分。2、影响地球村的出现和发展给人类社会带来极大影响，人与人，社会与社会，国家与国家的相互依赖性及关系的密切程度大大增强，经社交等社会结构要素的形态发生了前所未有的变化。（五）对麦克卢汉媒介理论的总体评价1、意义有介质。他将媒介置于一个广阔的社会，历史情境中研究。因此其媒介分析有了高度和纵深的品质。开拓了从媒介技术出发观察人类社会发展的视角，并强调了媒介技术的社会历史作用。作用。关于地球村的预言也符合当前世界的发展趋势。2、局限会因素的作用。忽略了人的主体性和主观能动性，人仿佛成为媒介主宰的对象。（3）忽视媒介具体内容，对冷热媒介划分过于牵强（4）全部依据都集中在媒介工具对中枢感觉系统的影响上，由此解释的人类行为也是片面的。1、冷媒介和热媒介Ahotmediumisonethatextendonesinglesensein“highdefinition“Highdefinitionisthestateofbeingwellfilledwithdate.And,hotmediadonotleavesomuchtobefilledorincompletedbytheaudience,namly,lowinparticipation,suchasradia,moive.Bycontrast,acoldmediunislowdedinitionanditgivesaamountofinformation,there,coolmediaarehighinparticipationorcompletionbyaudience.forexample,aphoto,thereistoolittleinformationtounderstand.2两级传播.two-stepflowofcommunicationIn simple words,it be drawn”media source—opinion leaders population.”whentheopinionleadersadoptedthatfrommedia,thus,changeshadhappenedonthepupulace.thissuggeststhatideasofenflowfromtotheopinionleadersandfromthemthelessactivesectionof thepopulation.Toillustrateit,I’llgivean example:A man is going to vote A for predisent,but his friend stronglyrecommendedB,what’smore,hisfriendlistsmanyreasonsthatfrommedia,atlast,themanchoosedB.Thevotingcourseisthetwo-stepflowofcommunication.3.意见领袖opinionleadershipTheopinionleadershipplaydaspecialroleinthenetworkofpersonalrelationgships,theyengagedinpoliticaldissionmuchmorethantherestoftherespondents.oillustrateit,I’llgiveanexample:AmanisgoingtovoteAforpredisent,buthisfriendstronglyrecommendedB,what’smore,hisfriendlistsmanyreasonsthatfrommedia,atlast,themanchoosedB.Inthiscourse,thefriendistheopinionleadership.Threehypothetialpositions①．Thefirsthypothetialpositionisthedominant-hegemonicposition,stateinanotherway,whentheviewertakestheconnotedmeaningfromamedium,thedecodesthemessageintermsofthereferencecodeinwhichithasbeenecoded,wemightsaytheviewerisoperatinginside thedominantcode.②.Thesecondisnegotiatedcode.simply,corporatedecodings,decodingwithinthenegotiatedversioncontainsamixtureofadaptiveandoppositionalelements.what’smore,negotiatedcodesoperatethroughparticularorsituatedlogics.③.Thethirdisoppositionalcode.Asweallknow,itispossibleforaviwerperfectlytounderstandthemeaninggivenbyadiscoursebuttodecodethemessageinagloballycontraryway.Viwersdetotalizedthemessageinthepreferredcodeinordertoreto