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关于感染性疾病的实验诊断第1页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三前言实验诊断学(laboratorydiagnosis)是诊断学的一部分,它是基础医学向临床医学过渡的桥梁课程之一。实验诊断学的任务是将临床检验所提供的检验信息,通过医师的分析和思维,科学地应用于临床诊断、鉴别诊断、观察病情、判断预后、预防疾病的一门学科,特别强调在循证实验医学的原则下推行“实验的优化组合应用”和“在实验监测下作个体化治疗的应用”,实验诊断学也可称为临床检验诊断学。因此,它是医学生的必修课,必须加以重视。第2页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三

感染性疾病的实验诊断第3页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三主要学习内容及要求掌握感染性疾病的常用实验室检测项目及其临床意义和评价不同病原体感染性疾病实验室检测与不同系统病原体感染性疾病实验室检测特点熟悉引起血流感染、中枢神经系统感染、呼吸系统感染、消化系统感染、泌尿系统感染、皮肤及软组织感染和先天及新生儿感染常见病原体与常见疾病及病原学检查、常见医院感染病原体及特点、医院感染的微生物学检测及医院感染暴发流行的识别和处理了解当今感染病特点、感染类型第4页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三SpecimenCollection

Successfullaboratorydiagnosisofamicrobialinfectiondependsonmanyfactorsbeginningwithawell-collectedsample.Properspecimenselection,collection,andtransportareallessentialtoensurethataspecimenisrepresentativeofthediseaseprocessandminimallycontaminatedwithmicroorganismspresentinadjacenttissues.第5页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三SiteandTimingCollectthesamplefromthecorrectanatomicsite.eg.asuperficialsampleofalesionisnotusefulinidentifyingthecauseofadeepwoundinfection.Thetimingofsamplecollectionisalsoimportant.

eg,whensubmittingaspecimenforbacterialculture,samplesshouldbecollectedbeforetheadministrationofantibiotics

第6页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三CollectionTechniquesSufficientvolumeSteriletechniqueandequipment.Aftercollection,thespecimenmustbeplacedinanappropriatelylabeledleak-proofcontainer.第7页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三TransportofSpecimensRapid,optimallyinlessthan2hours.Fordelaysintransport,mostspecimensshouldberefrigerated.Exceptions:blood,cerebrospinalfluid(CSF),andspecimenstobeexaminedforanaerobes,fastidiousorganismssuchasNeisseriagonorrboeaeandBordetellapertussis,andTrichomonasvaginalis,allofwhichshouldbemaintainedatroomtemperature.第8页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三难点/重点解读(一)细菌感染性疾病常用实验室检测项目的组合(二)病毒感染性疾病常用实验室检测项目的组合(三)真菌感染性疾病常用实验室检测项目的组合(四)寄生虫感染性疾病常用实验室检测项目的组合第9页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三细菌感染性疾病

常用实验室检测项目的组合

1.感染病的实验诊断方法虽按基本原则进行,但细感染性疾病具下述特点:

在检查项目中,尤其以细菌分离培养鉴定为主。在无菌标本中检查到细菌,则此细菌为感染的病原;存在正常菌群的标本中检查到细菌,应区分是正常寄居的菌群或是致病的细菌,常需要作细菌定量计数,根据细菌数判断是否为感染的病原菌。第10页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三细菌感染性疾病

常用实验室检测项目的组合2.

根据目的不同,检测项目的选择是:

(1)诊断疾病的病原学,一般情况下只需鉴定到细菌的种,必要时再进一步鉴定;

(2)提供治疗方案,可以进行临床标本的直接药物敏感试验,还可根据分离出病原菌的种类直接提供选择抗生素的范围和种类;

(3)研究流行病学,必须对病原菌做进一步鉴定,往往鉴定到型(血清型或基因型)的水平;

(4)要了解这类细菌的致病性,必须进行细致鉴定,包括毒素、侵袭性酶类的检测。

第11页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三(一)细菌感染性疾病

常用实验室检测项目的组合

3.根据标本来源,通常构成不同组合的检验方法:

(1)无菌性标本(血液、脑脊液、体腔渗出液),采用显微镜检查和直接药敏试验可作为病原学诊断和提供临床治疗用药指导;(2)脓血便,采用革兰染色无诊断意义,需用标记抗体染色镜检获初步报告,再需经选择培养基分离培养,挑取可疑菌落作玻片血清凝集,阳性者可初步鉴定,再用配套生化反应可作出最后报告;(3)尿液标本,显微镜检查可初步估计细菌菌量,作出初步诊断,再经分离培养鉴定后和菌落定量计数可作出病原学诊断;④痰标本,采用显微镜检查,判定是否为合格标本,若为合格标本作分区划线接种,检出致病性菌落,再进行鉴定和药敏。第12页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三细菌感染性疾病

常用实验室检测项目的组合4.结果报告可由实验室人员可分别出具:先后和程度不同报告各检测项目(显微镜检查、分离培养、血清学试验、生化鉴定和PCR等核酸检测)结果,为临床提供信息。5.为保证细菌感染正确诊断,必须遵循下述细菌感染诊断原则:①要求医师和检验师的密切配合,不应停留在化验单往来;②重视检验标本的采集和送检;③重视检验过程的阶段性和连续性;④检验程序需有针对性和综合性。第13页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseasePrinciplesofDiagnosticMedicalMicrobiology

IntroductionDiagnosticmedicalmicrobiologyisconcernedwiththeetiologicdiagnosisofinfection.Laboratoryproceduresusedinthediagnosisofinfectiousdiseaseinhumansincludethefollowing:第14页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseasePrinciplesofDiagnosticMedicalMicrobiology

(1)Morphologicidentificationoftheagentinstainsofspecimensorsectionsoftissues(lightandelectronmicroscopy).(2)Cultureisolationandidentificationoftheagent.(3)Detectionofantigenfromtheagentbyimmunologicassay(latexagglutination,EIA,etc)orbyfluorescein-labeled(orperoxidase-labeled)antibodystains.第15页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseasePrinciplesofDiagnosticMedicalMicrobiology

(4)DNA-DNAorDNA-RNAhybridizationtodetectpathogen-specificgenesinpatients'specimens.(5)Detectionandamplificationoforganismnucleicacidinpatients'specimens.(6)Demonstrationofmeaningfulantibodyorcell-mediatedimmuneresponsestoaninfectiousagent.第16页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseasePrinciplesofDiagnosticMedicalMicrobiology

Physicianswhodealwithinfectiousprocessesmustknowwhenandhowtotakespecimens,whatlaboratoryexaminationstorequest,andhowto

interprettheresults.Clinicalinformationismuchmoreimportantfordiagnosticmicrobiologythanitisforclinicalchemistryorhematology.Theclinicianmustmakeatentativediagnosisratherthanwaituntillaboratoryresultsareavailable.第17页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseasePrinciplesofDiagnosticMedicalMicrobiology

CommunicationbetweenPhysician&Laboratory

Asthelaboratorystaffbeginstoobtainresults,theyinformthephysician,whocanthenreevaluatethediagnosisandclinicalcourseofthepatientandperhapsmakechangesinthetherapeuticprogram.This"feedback"informationfromthelaboratoryconsistsofpreliminaryreportsoftheresultsofindividualstepsintheisolationandidentificationofthecausativeagent.第18页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDisease

DiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsSpecimensLaboratoryexaminationusuallyincludesmicroscopicstudyoffreshunstainedandstainedmaterialsandpreparationofcultureswithconditionssuitableforgrowthofawidevarietyofmicroorganisms,includingthetypeoforganismmostlikelytobecausativebasedonclinicalevidence.第19页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsSpecimensIfamicroorganismisisolated,completeidentificationmaythenbepursued.Isolatedmicroorganismsmaybetestedforsusceptibilitytoantimicrobialdrugs.Whensignificantpathogensareisolatedbeforetreatment,follow-uplaboratoryexaminationsduringandaftertreatmentmaybeappropriate.

第20页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsSpecimensSpecimensAproperlycollectedspecimenisthesinglemostimportantstepinthediagnosisofaninfection,becausetheresultsofdiagnostictestsforinfectiousdiseasesdependupontheselection,timing,andmethodofcollectionofspecimens.

第21页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsSpecimensSpecimensRecoveryofbacteriaismostsignificantiftheagentisisolatedfromasitenormallydevoidofmicroorganisms(anormallysterilearea).Anytypeofmicroorganismculturedfromblood,cerebrospinalfluid,jointfluid,orthepleuralcavityisasignificantdiagnosticfinding.Conversely,manypartsofthebodyhaveanormalmicrobialflora(respiratory,gastrointestinal,orgenitourinarytracts;fromwounds;orfromtheskin)mustbeconsideredinthecontextofthenormalfloraofeachparticularsite.第22页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsSpecimensSpecimensAfewgeneralrulesapplytoallspecimens:(1)Thequantityofmaterialmustbeadequate.(2)Thesampleshouldberepresentativeoftheinfectiousprocess(eg,sputum,notsaliva;pusfromtheunderlyinglesion,notfromitssinustract;aswabfromthedepthofthewound,notfromitssurface).(3)Contaminationofthespecimenmustbeavoidedbyusingonlysterileequipmentandasepticprecautions.第23页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsSpecimens(4)Thespecimenmustbetakentothelaboratoryandexaminedpromptly.Specialtransportmediamaybehelpful.(5)Meaningfulspecimenstodiagnosebacterialandfungalinfectionsmustbesecuredbeforeantimicrobialdrugsareadministered.Ifantimicrobialdrugsaregivenbeforespecimensaretakenformicrobiologicstudy,drugtherapymayhavetobestoppedandrepeatspecimensobtainedseveraldayslater.第24页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsMicroscopy&StainsGramstainingisaveryusefulprocedureindiagnosticmicrobiology.Mostspecimenssubmittedwhenbacterialinfectionissuspectedshouldbesmearedonglassslides,Gram-stained,andexaminedmicroscopically.第25页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsMicroscopy&StainsTheappearanceofbacteriaonGram-stainedsmearsdoesnotpermitidentificationofspecies.Reportsofgram-positivecocciinchainsaresuggestiveof,butnotdefinitivefor,streptococcalspecies;gram-positivecocciinclusterssuggestastaphylococcalspecies.第26页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsMicroscopy&StainsSpecimenssubmittedforexaminationformycobacteriashouldbestainedforacid-fastorganisms,usingeitherZiehl-NeelsenstainorKinyounstain.Immunofluorescentantibody(IF)stainingisusefulintheidentificationofmanymicroorganisms第27页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsCultureSystemsFordiagnosticbacteriology,itisnecessarytouseseveraltypesofmediaforroutineculture,particularlywhenthepossibleorganismsincludeaerobic,facultativelyanaerobic,andobligatelyanaerobicbacteria.第28页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsCultureSystems

culturemediausedtodiagnose:bloodagar,Chocolateagar,selectivemediumforentericgram-negativerods(eitherMacConkeyagaroreosin-methyleneblue[EMB]agar,brucellaagarwithheminandvitaminK,Manyotherspecializedmediaareusedindiagnosticbacteriology;choicesdependontheclinicaldiagnosisandtheorganismunderconsideration.第29页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsAntigenDetectionImmunologicsystemsdesignedtodetectantigensofmicroorganismscanbeusedinthediagnosisofspecificinfections.IFtests(directandindirectfluorescentantibodytests)areoneformofantigendetectionandarediscussedinseparatesectionsinthischapteronthediagnosisofbacterial,chlamydial,andviralinfectionsandinthechaptersonthespecificmicroorganisms.第30页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsAntigenDetectionEnzymeimmunoassays(EIA),includingenzyme-linkedimmunosorbentassays(ELISA),andagglutinationtestsareusedtodetectantigensofinfectiousagentspresentinclinicalspecimens.Theprinciplesofthesetestsarereviewedbrieflyhere.第31页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsAntigenDetectionLatexagglutinationtestsareprimarilydirectedatthedetectionofcarbohydrateantigensofencapsulatedmicroorganisms.AnotherformofEIA,todetectantibody,isimmunoblotting("Westernblot"),wherebydefinedantigensareplacedonstripsofnitrocellulosepaper.第32页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseBacteriaUsing16SrRNAThe16SrRNAofeachspeciesofbacteriahasstable(conserved)portionsofthesequence.Manycopiesarepresentineachorganism.Labeledprobesspecificforthe16SrRNAofaspeciesareadded,andtheamountoflabelonthedouble-strandedhybridismeasured.第33页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseBacteriaUsing16SrRNAThistechniqueiswidelyusedfortherapididentificationofmanyorganisms.ExamplesincludethemostcommonandimportantMycobacteriumspecies,Coccidioidesimmitis,Histoplasmacapsulatum,andothers.第34页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseMolecularDiagnosticsTheprinciplebehindearlymolecularassaysisthehybridizationofacharacterizednucleicacidprobetoaspecificnucleicacidsequenceinatestspecimenfollowedbydetectionofthepairedhybrid.第35页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseMolecularDiagnosticsTargetAmplificationSystemstranscription-mediatedamplification(TMA)thenucleicacidsequence-basedamplification(NASBA)Stranddisplacementassays(SDA)ProbeAmplificationSystems-Theligasechainreaction(LCR)SignalAmplificationTechniques-branchedDNA(bDNA)第36页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDisease第37页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三病毒感染性疾病

常用实验室检测项目的组合

1.感染病的实验诊断方法虽按基本原则进行,但病毒感染性疾病具下述特点:作分离的标本和细菌标本不一样,必须是经滤过除菌的液体标本。大多数病毒对热敏感,因此标本需迅速冷藏和运送。病毒分离培养后,

根据细胞病变特征确定何种病毒,再此基础上,对已分离的病毒和已知参考血清作中和试验、补体结合试验。第38页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三病毒感染性疾病

常用实验室检测项目的组合2.病毒血清学检查是病毒感染诊断的常规实验室方法,用免疫标记技术检测标本组织细胞内的病毒抗原和胞外游离病毒抗原是一种快速的早期诊断。显微镜检查也是病毒实验诊断不可忽视的手段,光学显微镜检查感染组织或脱落细胞中特征性病毒包涵体、电镜检查病毒颗粒是早期诊断的方法之一。第39页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三病毒感染性疾病

常用实验室检测项目的组合3.核酸检测病毒分离鉴定和血清学诊断一般需较长时间才能判断结果,近年来发展的利用核酸杂交技术和PCR技术检测标本中病毒核酸,是一种快速的早期诊断。对那些可能新出现的病毒,只有用分离方法取得最好诊断结果。第40页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三病毒感染性疾病

常用实验室检测项目的组合

4.以循证检验为依据选择实验项目

病毒感染实验诊断方法诸多,且各具不同的敏感度和特异度。有关的医学专业组织可充分利用已有的循证诊断试验的文献,制定科学的、严格的、用于临床疾病诊断的指南。指南根据现有的最佳证据或专家的一致意见,提供诊断建议,将实验室诊断试验项目分别按证据的等级水平进行标记。临床实验室人员、特别是临床医师可依据指南对同一组织器官、不同病毒感染或不同组织器官、同一病毒感染选择最佳。第41页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三approachestothediagnosisofviralinfectionTherearetwomajorapproachestothediagnosisofviralinfection:virologicandserologic.

Thevirologicapproachincludes(1)isolationofinfectiousvirusincellcultureorinlaboratoryanimals,(2)detectionofviralantigenbyimmunologicmethodssuchasimmunofluorescenceassay(IFA)orenzymeimmunoassay(EIA),(3)identificationofviralparticlesbyelectronmicroscopy(EM),and(4)detectionofviralnucleicacid.第42页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三approachestothediagnosisofviralinfectionTheserologicapproachincludes(1)demonstrationofafourfoldorgreaterriseinantiviralantibodyusingacuteandconvalescentseraandavarietyofmethodsthatmeasurepredominantlyimmunoglobulin(Ig)antibodyand(2)demonstrationofvirus-specificIgMantibodyinasinglelateacuteorrecoveryphaseserum.第43页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三approachestothediagnosisofviralinfectionAsistrueforanydiagnostictest,thetiming,quality,andhandlingofthespecimenarecriticalforanaccuratediagnosis.Forthevirologicapproachtodiagnosis,itisimportanttoobtainspecimensduringtheacuteinfectionfromthesiteofdisease.第44页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三approachestothediagnosisofviralinfectionOptimalSpecimens

Theoptimalspecimensvarydependingonthesiteofdisease:1、Lesions2、PediatricRespiratoryIllness3、AdultRespiratoryIllness4、AcuteInfection第45页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三

approachestothediagnosis

ofviralinfection-

ViralIsolation

Isolationofinfectiousvirusintissuecellculturesremainsoneofthemostcommonlyusedmethodstodetectviruses.ThemajorvirusesdetectedbyisolationincellcultureincludeHSV,CMV,RSV,influenzaAandB,theparainfluenzaviruses,theadenoviruses,theenteroviruses(CoxsackieAandB,echo,polio),andVZV..第46页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三

approachestothediagnosis

ofviralinfection-

ViralIsolation

SeveralDifferentTypesofCells

Becausenotallculturableviruseswillgrowinasinglecellline,severaldifferenttypesofcellsarerequired:(1)Duringthewinterseason,thecellsthatmaybeusedtoisolaterespiratoryvirusesincludeprimaryrhesusmonkeykidney.Madin-Darbycaninekidney,Hep-2(ahumanepithelialcarcinomacellline,)buffalogreenmonkeykidneycontinuouscellline,andahumanfibroblastcell.第47页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三

approachestothediagnosis

ofviralinfection-

ViralIsolation

SeveralDifferentTypesofCells

(2)Forthesummer/fallenteroviousseason,thesearedifferentfromthecellsused:primaryrhesusmonkeykidney,Hep-2,buffalogreenmonkeykidney,RD(ahumanrhabdomyosarcomacellline),andahumanfibroblastcell.第48页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三approachestothediagnosisofviralinfection-ViralIsolation(3)

CytopathicEffect(CPE)1.Manyviruseswilldemonstrateacytopathiceffect(CPE)

withinafewdays,whereassomemaytakeaslongasaweekortwo.SomeviruseswilldonotcausetypicalCPEandareidentifiedbytheadsorptionofredbloodcellstothesurfaceofvirus-infectedcellsintheculture(e.ghemadsorptionfortheinfluenzaandparainfluenzaviruses).Forsomeviruses,suchasseveraloftheCoxsackieAvirusesandColoradotickfevervirusmouseinoculationisrequired.第49页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三CytopathicEffect(CPE)第50页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三

hemadsorptionfortheinfluenzaandparainfluenzaviruses

第51页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三mouseinoculation

第52页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三

approachestothediagnosis

ofviralinfection-ViralIsolation

CytopathicEffect(CPE)

2.Withcellculturesystems,presumptiveidentificationofparticularvirusorvirusgroup(e.g.HSVorRSVoranenterovirus)canbeperformedwithinafeworseveraldaysbasedontheCPE:characteristics,timeofonset,andcelltypeinwhichitoccurs.Thispresumptiveidentificationcanbegreatlyfacilitatedifthetestrequisitionslipcontainstheimportantinformationrequested:sourceofthespecimen(e.g.swabofagenitalulceroraconjunctivalswabratherthananunidentifiedswabsource)andclinicaldiagnosis(e.g.genitalherpes,influenza,asepticmeningitis).第53页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三

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ConfirmationofaSpecificVirus

Confirmationofaspecificvirusserotypeorofavirus(e.g.HSV-2,influenzaAH3N2,echovirus11)requiresuseofimmunologicmethodswithantibodyofknownspecificity.Inrecentyears,fluorescenceorperoxidase-conjugatedmonoclonalantibodies(MABs)havebecomeavailablecommerciallytodetectviralantigenincellcultures,e.g.HSV,CMV,VZV,RSV,influenzaAandB,theparainfluenzaviruses,andtheadenoviruses.第54页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三

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ConfirmationofaSpecificVirusToidentifythespecificserotypeofinfluenzaAorB,inhibitionofhemaglutinationbyspecificserotypeantiseraisused.ForconfirmationofaspecificCoxsaclieorechovirusserotype,neutralizationofCPEwithpoolsofantiseraandthenindividualantiseraisstillrequired.第55页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三AdvantagesThereareseveraladvantagestousingisolationofinfectiousvirusasthemethodofdiagnosis.(1)First,abroadrangeofvirusescanbedetected,Forexample,fromarespiratorysectionspecimen,anumberofdifferentrespiratoryvirusescanbeisolated,whereasanantigendetectionmayidentifyonlyonevirus(eg.RSV).第56页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三approachestothediagnosisofviralinfection-

ViralIsolation

Advantages(2)Second,isolationofinfectiousvirusmakestheagentavailableforfurthercharacterization,suchasantivialsusceptibilitytestingandserotyping/subtypingforepidemiologicpurposes.(3)Third,viralisolationisasensitiveandspecificstandardwithwhichmorerapidmethodsarecompared.第57页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三approachestothediagnosis

ofviralinfection-ViralIsolation

DisadvantagesTherearealsoseveraldisadvantagestoviralisolation.Itrequirestheavailabilityofacellculturelaboratory,withtheneedforspecializedequipmentandsuppliesandtrainedpersonnel.Second,isolationisslowerthanantigendetection,withresultsindaysratherthanhours.Finally,specimencollectionandtransportconditionsaremorecriticalforisolationthanantigentests.第58页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三

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ViralAntigenDetection

Viralantigendetection

testsmaybeperformedoncellculturesforearlydetection/confirmationofviralantigenoronspecimensdirectlyfrompatients:nasalornasopharyngealsecretions,BALfluids,scrapingsofvesiclesorconjunctivae,swabsofthecervixorurethra,stoolsamples,ortissuebiopsies.第59页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三

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ViralAntigenDetection

Becauseviralantigenispresentincells,itisimportantthatspecimensfrompatientscontainasufficientnumberofcells.FormoreslowlygrowingvirussuchasCMV,theuseofMABagainstnonstructuralproteinsproducedearlyinthereplicationcycle(i,eimmediateearlyantigen)allowsdetectionofvirusevenbeforeCPEcanbeobserves.第60页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三

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ViralAntigenDetection

Themajorviralantigensthatcanbedetectedindirectpatientspecimensinclude(1)rotavirusandentericadenovirusinstoolspecimens;(2)RSV,influenzaAandB,theparainfluenzaviruses,andtheadenovirusesinrespiratoryspecimens;(3)hepatitisBvirus(HBV)surfaceantigen(HBsAg)andHIVp24antigeninserum;第61页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三

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ViralAntigenDetection

(4)HSVandVZVinvesicle/ulcerswabspecimens;and(5)CMVinBALspecimens.ThemajorvirusesdetectedbytheSVC/VAS(ShellViralCentrifugation/ViralAntigenStaining)methodincludeCMV,HSV,RSV,theinfluenzaviruses,andadenoviruses.第62页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三approachestothediagnosis

ofviralinfection-ViralAntigenDetection

MethodstoDetectViralAntigen

Methodstodetectviralantigenmaybeeitherdirectorindirect.(1)Withdirectmethods,fluorescien,anenzyme,oraradiolabel(theindicatorsystem)isconjugatedtotheantibodyusedtodetectthevirus(primaryantibody第63页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三approachestothediagnosis

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ViralAntigenDetection

MethodstoDetectViralAntigen

(2)Withindirectmethods,theindicatorsystemisconjugatedtoasecondaryantibody(e.g.,rabbitanti-mouse),whichinturnisdirectedagainsttheprimaryantibody(e.g.,mouseMAB).TheindirectmethodcanbeconstructedtoreactwithhumanIgGorIgMmoleculesforuseinantibodyassays.ThemajorindicatorsystemincluedIFA,EIA,andradioimmunoassay(RIA)第64页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三

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ShellViralCentrifugation/ViralAntigenStaining(SVC/VAS)Method(SVC/VAS)techniqueofcentrifugationofthepatientspecimenontothecellmonolayeronacoverslipinthebottomofashellvialfollowedbystainingforviralantigenwithMABafter1of2daysofincubationhassignificantlyreducedthetimerequiredtodetectandconfirmanumberofviruses.Thecentrifugationstepshortensthetimerequiredforreplicationofthevirusandproductionofviralantigenincellcultures.第65页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三

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ShellViralCentrifugation/ViralAntigenStaining(SVC/VAS)MethodForexample,withCMV,theSVC/VASmethoddetects50%ofthetotalpositivesin1dayand90%in2days,whereasitrequires10daystodetect50%withconventionalCPE.Manydiagnosticvirologylaboratories,therefore,usetheSVC/VAStechnique,particularlyfordetectionofCMV.第66页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三

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ViralAntigenDetection

AdvantagesThereareseveraladvantagestoviralantigendetection.(1)Specimencollectionandtransportconditionsarelesscriticalthanforviralisolation.(2)Antigendetectiontestresultsareavailablesoonerthanviralisolation,usuallywithinhours.(3)Theantigentestscandetectvirusesthatwillnotgrowincommerciallyavailablecellculturesystems(e.g.,rotavirus,entericadenovirus,HBV,HIV).第67页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三

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ViralAntigenDetection

Advantages(4)Theantigendetectiontestsdonotrequirecellculturelaboratoryequipmentandtrainedpersonnelforperformance.(5)Theremaybespecimensinwhichviralinfectivityhasbeenlost(negativeviralisolationresults)butantigenicityhasbeenpreserved(trueantigen-positivetest).第68页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三

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ViralAntigenDetection

DisadvantagesTherearealsoseveraldisadvantagestoviralantigendetection.(1)Theremustbeagoodantiserumandtestkitcommerciallyavailableforthevirussoughtinthespecimen.ExamplesofmedicallyimportantvirusesforwhichantigendetectionsystemsarenotyetavailableareEpstein-Barrvirus(EBV),hepatitisAandCviruses,theenteroviruses,rubella,mumps,thearboviruses,andparvovirusB19.第69页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三

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ViralAntigenDetection

Disadvantages(2)Aseparateantigendetectiontestmustbeperformedforeachvirusbeingsought.Forexample,withrespiratorysecretions,onetestmustbeperformedforRSV,anotherforinfluenza,stillanotherforinfluenzaB,andsoon.(3)Dependingontheparticularvirusandantigendetectionsystemavailable,theantigentestmaybelesssensitiveandisalwayslessspecificthanviralisolation.第70页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三

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ElectronMicroscopy

EMremainanimportantadjuncttootherviraldiagnosticmethods,especiallyforidentificationofagentsofviralgastroenteritis.OtherusesforEMincludedetectionofpolyomavirusesinurineandherpesvirusparticlesinvesiclefluid(HSV,VZV)orinbraintissue(HSV,CMV,EBV),amongothers.第71页,共132页,2022年,5月20日,19点19分,星期三

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