语言学笔记无私

1、语言学笔记无（全；免“支持”版与；语言学笔记无（全；免“支持”版与；-Whatis“Languageissystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.isasystem,sincelinguisticelementsarearrangedsystematically,nrandomly. hetthereisusuallyrinsicnawork(like“book”)Whatis“Languageissystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.isasystem,

2、sincelinguisticelementsarearrangedsystematically,nrandomly. hetthereisusuallyrinsicnawork(like“book”)andtheobjectitrefersto.Thisexplainsandexplainedbythetdifferentlanguageshavedifferent“books”:inEnglish,“livre”inFrench,in,in,“check”inKorean.issymbolic,becausewordsaretedwithobjects,actions,ideasetc.n

3、othingonvention.Namely,peopleusethesoundsorvocalformstonthespokenforms.Thetsmallchildrenlearnandcanonlylearntovocal,tlanguageishumanWhataredesignfeaturesof“Designfeatures”hererefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumantWhatisBy“arbitrariness”,wemeanthereisnologicalconnectionnmeaningssyseemtobesomesound-mean

4、ingtion,ifwethinkof“Type”and“write”areopaqueorunmotivatedwords,while“type-writer”lessso,ormoretransparentornthetmakeit.Sowesay“arbitrariness”isamatterof1.4.What istinalllanguagessolessso,ormoretransparentornthetmakeit.Sowesay“arbitrariness”isamatterof1.4.What istinalllanguagesso,level,languageermsof

5、combinationsofits(suchmorphemes,wordsetc.);atthesecond,lowerlevel,itisseenasasequencesegmentswhichlackanyhemselves,butwhichcombinetoformunitsmeaning.AccordingtoHuZhanglinetal.(p.6),languageisasystemoftwoofstructures,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeaning.Thisisimportantforworkingsoflanguage.Asmallnumberofu

6、nits(words),andtheseunitsmeaningcanbearrangedandoaninfinitenumberofsiblersontotalkaboutanythingwithinhisknowledge.Nocommunicationsystemenjoysthisduality,orevenapproachesthis1.5.What isProductivityreferstotheabilitytotheabilitytoconstructandunderstandylargenumberofinonesnativelanguage,includingsnever

7、heardbefore,tareappropriatetothespeakingNoonehaseversaidorheard“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthesmallbedsary,andhecan1.6.What is“Displacement”,asoneofthedesignfeaturesofthehumanlanguage,refersthetonecantalkabouttarenotpresent,aseasilyashethingspresent.Inotherwords,onecanrefertorealandunrealthings,thi

8、ngsof thepast,ofthepresent,ofthefuture.Languageitselfcanbetalkedabouttoo. When a man, for exle,iscryingtoawoman,aboutsomething,itmightbesomething d occurred, or somethingt is occurring, or somethingt is to occur.Whenadogisbarking,however,youcandecideitisbarkingforsomethingorlostloveorabonetobelost.T

9、hebeessystem,nonetheless,hasasmallof“displacement”,butitisanunspeakabletiny1.7.Whatiscultural?This tlanguageisnotbiologicallytransmittedfromgenerationgeneration,tthedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedaneweachspeaker.Itof“displacement”,butitisanunspeakabletiny1.7.Whatiscultural?This tlanguageis

10、notbiologicallytransmittedfromgenerationgeneration,tthedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedaneweachspeaker.Itistthecapacityforlanguageinhumanbeings(N.calledit“languageacquisitiondevice”,orLAD)hasageneticbasis,butparticularnaonelikethedogsbarkingsystem.Ifahumanbeingisbroughtupinisolationhe canno

11、tacquirelanguage.TheWolfChildrearedbythepackofwolvesturnedoutto nosmalldifficulty,theABCofacertainhuman1.8.What producerandaofmessages.Wecansay,andonotherscanreceiveandunderstand,le,“Pleasedosomethingtomakemehappy.”Thoughsomepeopleme)tthereissexheactuallanguageuse,inwords,menandwomenmaysaydifferentt

12、hings,yetinprinciplethereisnoorwordortamancanutterandawomancannot,orviceversa.Onotherrsoncanbethespeakerwhiletheersonisthelistenerastheturnmovesontothelistener,hecanbethespeakerandsibleistolisten.Itisturn-t makesl Someirds,however,uttersomecallswhichfemalesdonot(orcannot?),certainkindsoffishhavesimi

13、larhapsmentionable.Whenadogbarks,alllwhichdog(dogs)is“speaking”andwhich1.9.WhydolinguistssaylanguageishumansystemsdoWang speakahumanlanguageveachievednothinginspiring.Washoe,aspeakahumanlanguageveachievednothinginspiring.Washoe,atmadetheteachersbutdidmotmakethelinguisticscirclehappy,forfewwhenheista

14、kenbackandtaughttolotoso(seethe“WolfChild”in1.10.Whatfunctionsdoeslanguageeastsevenfunctions:phatic,directive,Language errogative, expressive, evocative and performative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11),languagehasthreemainfunctions:atoolofcommunication,awherebypeoplelearnabouttheworld,andatoolby

15、whichpeoplelearnaboutworld,andatoolbywhichpeoplecreateart.M.A.K.Halliday,isthephaticiveThe“phaticfunction”referstolanguageused forsettingaatmosphereoraininglnforexchangingtheweatherinEnglishandorideas).Greetings,farewells,andcommentsclothinginareyou?”“Fine, Ifyoudontsayallservethisfunction.Muchofthe

16、phaticlanguage(e.g.“How nks.”)isinsincereiftakenliterally,butitisimportant. o”toafriendyoumeet,orifyoudontanswerhis“Hi”,youruinyourThe“directivefunction”Whatisthedirectivetlanguagemaybeusedtogetthehearertosomething.Mostimperativeperformthisfunction,e.g.,lmeresultwhenyoufinish.”Othersyntacticstructur

17、esorofothercan,accordingtoJ.AustinandJ.Searles“indrectspeechacttheory”(seeIwereyou,Iwouldhave blushedtobottomof1.13.WhatistheLanguageservesan“informationalfunction”whenusedl .InformativeofQuality”,whenheisinformingat1.14.WhatiserrogativeofQuality”,whenheisinformingat1.14.WhatiserrogativeThisincludes

18、alltexpects, ements,imperativesaccordingtothe“indirectspeechacttheory”,mayhavethisfunctionase.g.,“Idliketoknowyoubetter.”Thismaybringlotinformation.trhetoricalquestionsmakeanexception,sincetheyno eastnotthereaders/listeners1.15.WhatistheexpressiveThe“expressivefunction”istheuseoflanguagetorevealsome

19、thingaboutdelay”canserveasgoodlestoo,thoughinasubtleway.Whilelanguageusedfortheinformativefunctiontopassjudgementonthetruthorfalsehoodsements,languageusedfortheexpressivefunctionevaluates,appraisesassertsthespeakersown1.16.Whatistheevocativehearer.Itsaimis,forle,toamuse,startle,antagonize,soothe,wor

20、ryplease.Jokes(notpracticaljokes,though)areedtoamuseorle,ingiton,apoliticaltsalsothecasewiththeotherway1.17.WhatistheperformativeThismeanspeoplespeakto“dothings”orperformactions.Oncertainstheutteranceitselfasanactionismoreconstitutetheutteredsentence.WhenaskedifanwhatwordsortzebridgeoughttobuiltinWu

21、han,themayormaysay“OK”,eansnspeech,andn age lindividualmaydofortheconstruction.Theperformativesaswell(seeJ.AustinsspeechActTheory,Hu1.18.Whatisn age lindividualmaydofortheconstruction.Theperformativesaswell(seeJ.AustinsspeechActTheory,Hu1.18.Whatis“Linguistics”isthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudie

22、snotjustonelanguage ofanyonesociety,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.Alinguist,though,vetoknowandusealargenumberoflanguages,buttoinvestigatehowheirorcommunities(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp20-1.19.WhatmakeslinguisticsaSincelinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage, itoughttobaseitselfupon thesystematic,inve

23、stigationoflanguagedatawhichaimsatdiscoveringthetrue nature oflanguageand its underlyingsystem.Tomake senseof thedata,a linguist usuallyhasconceivedsomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure,tobeysisalinguistisusuallyguidedbyfourprinciples:exhaustiveness,consistency,and objectivity.Exhaustivenessmeansh

24、eshouldgatherallthematerialsrelevantto thestudyandgivethemanadequateexplanation,inspiteofthenocontradictionndifferentpartsofthetotalement.Economymeanssible.linguistshouldpursueysiswhen it stomepeoplemaybehestudy,alinguistbe(orworkconstitutespartofthelinguisticst1.20.WhatarethemajorbranchesofThe stud

25、y of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglinetal.,1988;WangGang,1988).Butalinguistsometimesisabletodealwithonlyoneaspectoflanguageime,thustheariseofvariousbranchesphonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,s,sociolinguistics,d 1.21.WhataresynchronicanddiachronicThedescri

26、ptionofalanguageatsomeoftime(asifitstopped)phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,s,sociolinguistics,d 1.21.WhataresynchronicanddiachronicThedescriptionofalanguageatsomeoftime(asifitstopped)timeisadiachronicstudy(diachronic).Anessayentitled“OntheUseofforle,maybesynchronic,iftheauthordoesnotrecallthep

27、astofTHE,THEhasundergonetremendousalteration(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp25-1.22.Whatisspeechandwhatisysis,learningtowrite.Secondly,writtenformsjusthiswayt.speechsounds:individualsounds,asinEnglishandFrenchasinIncontrasttospeech,spokenformoflanguage,writingaswrittenthrough otpeoplecanwritetoeachother.Seco

28、ndly,messagescanthereby,tpeopleofourtimecanreadBeowulf,SamuelJohnson,andEdgarPoe.Thirdly,oralmessagesarereadilysubjecttodistortion,or1.23.Whatarethenthedescriptive andthe Alinguisticstudyis“descriptive”ifitonlydescribesysesthebecausemanyearlygrammarswerelargelyprescriptivebecausemanyearlyismostlydes

29、criptive,however.It(thelatter)twhateveroccursnaturalspeechpleteutterance,misunderstanding,etc.)beysis,andnotbemarkedasincorrect,abnormal,orlousy.These,withchangesinvocabularyismostlydescriptive,however.It(thelatter)twhateveroccursnaturalspeechpleteutterance,misunderstanding,etc.)beysis,andnotbemarke

30、dasincorrect,abnormal,orlousy.These,withchangesinvocabularyandstructures,needtobe1.24.WhatisthedifferencenlangueandF.deSau rerefers“langue”totheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthe membersofaspeechcommunityandrefers“parole”totheactualoractualized language,ortherealizationoflangue.Langueisabstract,

31、parolespecifictothe speakingsituation;languenotactuallyspokenbyanindividual,parolealwaysa oughttodo,accordingtoofi.e.todiscoverthenthesubjectoflinguistics.Thelangue-paroledistinctionisofgreatwhichcastsgreatinfluenceonlater1.25.Whatisthedifferencencompetenceandtherulesofhislanguage,and“performance”is

32、theactualrealizationofknowledgeinAspeakerscompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedor equal ped ChomskynInotherwords,theyshoulddiscoverwhatanidealspeakerknowsofhisnative Chomskyscompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,similarto,F.delandasetofconventionsforacommunity,while

33、competenceisdeemedasaofthemindofeachindividual.orsociolinguisticofreanguagemorefromanN.Chomskysincethelatterdealswithiespsychologicallyor1.26.Whatislinguisticpotential?Thesetwoterms,orthepotential-iuallinguisticdistinction,weremadebyM.A.ofview.Thereisawiderangehe1960s,fromafunctionalthingsaspeakernh

34、isculture,andsimilarlythereare1.26.Whatislinguisticpotential?Thesetwoterms,orthepotential-iuallinguisticdistinction,weremadebyM.A.ofview.Thereisawiderangehe1960s,fromafunctionalthingsaspeakernhisculture,andsimilarlytherearemanythingshesay,forle,tomanypeople,onmanytopics.Whatheactuallysays(i.e.“actua

35、llinguisticbehavior”)onacertaintoaishehaschosenfromsibleinjusticeitems,eachofwhichhecouldhave(linguistic1.27.Inwhatwaydolanguage,competenceandlinguisticpotentialagree?Inwaydotheydiffer?Andtheir Langue,competenceandlinguisticpotentialhavesomesimilarfeatures,butareconventions;competenceisapropertyorat

36、tributeofeachidealspeakersituation.Inotherwords,is utreliableabstractsystem.Competencemeans“knowing”,Theyarehattheyallrefertotheconstantunderlyingthetconstitutewhatre,ChomskyandHallidayrespectivelycalledperformanceandactuallinguisticbehavior.Paole,performanceandlinguisticbehaviorenjoymoren .1.28.Wha

37、tismaybestudiedindifferentways,thusbythreedifferentbranchesof(1)Articulatoryphonetics;thebranchoftexaminesthewayinhes.(2)Auditoryphonetics,thebranchofphoneticfromthehearerswhichaspeechmakesonthehearerasmediatedbytheear,theauditorynerveandthe(3)Acousticphonetics:thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeec

38、hsounds,transmittedns,however,nnd erestedinarticulatoryMost 1.29.HowaretheansTheofthehumanbodywhosesecondaryuseheproductionofspeechsounds.ans1.29.HowaretheansTheofthehumanbodywhosesecondaryuseheproductionofspeechsounds.anscanbeconsideredasconsistingofthreeparts;theinitiatorofair-stream,theproducerof

39、voiceandtheresonating1.30.Whatisplaceofhe mouthwhere,forle,theobstructionItrefersto somethe heutteranceofaconsonant.Whateversoundisanswillgetinvolved,e.g.lips,hardpalateetc.,soa(4)alveolart,d,l,n.s,z;(5)retroflex;(6)palato-alveolar,;(7)palatal(8)velark,g,;(9)uvular;(10)glottalofthetongueandthesoftpa

40、late,andmaybetermed“labial-1.31.WhatisthemannerofThe“mannerofarticulation”literallymeansthewayasoundisarticulated.At agivenplaceofarticulation,theairstreammaybeobstructedinvariousways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following : (1) plosive p,b,t,d,k,g; (2) nasal m,n,; (3) tril

41、l; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral l; (6)fricativef,v,s,z;(7)approximantw,j;(8)affricate1.32.How donsclassifyvowels,e.g.,i:,;(4)roundedandunroundvowels,e.g.,i;(5)pureandvowels, 1.33.WhatisIPA?WhendiditobeingIPAhasundergoneanumberof 1.34.WhatisnarrowtranscriptionandwhatisbroadInhandbookofphonetics,Henry

42、tmadeadistinctionn“narrow”“broad”transcriptions,whichhecalled“NarrowRomic”.Theformerwas1.34.WhatisnarrowtranscriptionandwhatisbroadInhandbookofphonetics,Henrytmadeadistinctionn“narrow”“broad”transcriptions,whichhecalled“NarrowRomic”.TheformerwasoftionroadRomicortranscriptionendedtoindicatethosesound

43、scapableofordfromanotherinagiven1.35.Whatisphonology?Whatisdifferencenphoneticsand“Phonology”isthestudyofsoundsystems-theinventiondistinctivespeechtoccurinalanguageandthepatternsfall.Minimalpair,phonemes,allophones,freevariation,complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phono

44、logist.characteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirvesaforeign“accent”,tomakeupnewwords,toaddtheappropriatephoneticsegments tofrompluralsandpasttenses,toknowwhatisandwhatisnotasoundin1.36.Whatisaphone?Whatisaphoneme?WhatA“phone”isaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduce duri

45、nglinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Whenwehearthefollowingwords pronouncedpit,tip,spit,etc.,thesimilarphoneswehaveheardarepfor one thing, and three differentps, readily makingsible the “narrowtranscriptionordiacritics”.Phonesmayandmaynotdistinguishmeaning.“phoneme”isait;itisatisofdistinctivevalue.

46、orrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Forle,phonemepisrepresenteddifferentlyinpit,tipand(i.e.,phones)butdonotordsophoneticallydifferentastocreatenewwordoranewmeaningthereof.Sotheheabovewordstheallophonesofthesamephonemep.Howaphonemeisrepresentedbyaphone,whichallophoneistobenewwordoranew

47、meaningthereof.Sotheheabovewordstheallophonesofthesamephonemep.Howaphonemeisrepresentedbyaphone,whichallophoneistobeused,isdeterminedbythephoneticcontextinwhichoccurs.Butthechoicelophoneisnotostcasesiterned;theserulesaretobefoundoutbya1.37.WhatareminimalWhentwodifferentphoneticformsareidenticalineve

48、rywayexceptforonesegmentwhichhesamehestring,thetwoforms(i.e.,are“till”,“till”and“dill”,“till”and“kill”,etc.AllthesetoknowwhatareEnglishphonemes.ItisofgreatimportancetofindtheHu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.Whatisfreehesameenvironmentdonotcontrast;namely,ifIftwosoundssubstitutionofonefortheotherdo

49、esnotgenerateanewwordformbutmerelydifferentmay, if sary,be critics.Theseunexplodedandplosivesareinfreevariation.Soundsinfreevariationshouldbeassignedtosame 1.39.WhatiscomplementaryWhentwosoundsneverhesameenvironment,theyareintheunsaturatedonesneveroccurinitially.Soundsincomplementarymaybeassignedtot

50、hesamephoneme.Theallophonesofl,forle,areincomplementarydistribution.Theclearloccursonlybeforeavowel,words“please”,“butler”,“clear”,etc.,andthedarkloccursonlyavowelorasasyllabicsoundafteraconsonant,suchhewords“help”,“middle”,1.40.Whatistheassimilationrule?Whatisthedeletion(1)The“assimilationrule”assi

51、milatesgmenttoanotherby“copying”“help”,“middle”,1.40.Whatistheassimilationrule?Whatisthedeletion(1)The“assimilationrule”assimilatesgmenttoanotherby“copying”accountsfortheraringtionofthetoccurswithinaThe rule twithinawordthenasalconsonantnmesthesameplacearticulationasthefollowingconsonant.Thenegative

52、prefix“in-“servesasgood le.Itmaybepronouncedasin,orimwhenoccurringinphoneticcontexts:e.g.,indiscrete-input-The“deletionlsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughand“paradigm”,itisheircorresponding“signature”,“designation”and“paradigmatic”.Therulethencanbes ed as:deleteagwhenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsona

53、nt.Thisaccountsfor 1.41.What prasegmentalphonology?Whataresuprasegmental“Suprasegmentalphonology”referstothestudyofphonologicalpropertieslinguisticunitsHuZhuanglinetal.,(p,73)includesstress,ndpitchaswhattheyeofthreetone 1.42.What andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Itisgenerallyotwoinflectionalmorpholo

54、gyandlexical/derivational1.43.Whatis“Inflection”istheionofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchas,finiteness,aspect,case,whichdoesnotchangethegrammaticalclassoftheitemstowhichthey1.44.Whatisamorpheme?WhatThe“morpheme”istheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchas,finiteness,as

55、pect,case,whichdoesnotchangethegrammaticalclassoftheitemstowhichthey1.44.Whatisamorpheme?WhatThe“morpheme”isthesmallestermsofrelationshipnandcontent,aunitwhichcannotbedividedwithoutdestroyingorle,hastwomorphemes:“box”and“-es”,neitherofwhichpermitsysisifwedontwishtosacrificemeaning.Thereforeaisconsid

56、eredtheit of s(andthusforms)ofthesamemorphemes.Somemorphemes,though,havenon plurality“-s”maketheallomorphshefollowingles:map-mouse-mice,sheep-sheep1.45.Whatisafreemorpheme?Whatisabound“tree”,etc.A“boundmorpheme”ist appears tleastmorpheme, such as “-s” in “beds” , “-al” in “national” and so on. All m

57、onomorphemic words are free morphemes. Those polymorphemic words are either compounds(combinationoftwoormorefreemorphemes)orderivatives(wordderivedfrom free 1.46.Whatisaroot?Whatisastem?Whatisan tcannotbetpartofthewordleftwhentheaffixesareremoved.are taken Itmaybethesameas,andinothercases,differentf

58、rom,aroot.Forhe“friendships”,“friendships”isitsstem,“friend”isitsroot.Somehe“friendships”,“friendships”isitsstem,“friend”isitsroot.Somealanguage,andaregenerallyothreesubtypes:prefix,suffix1.47.Whatareopenclasses?WhatareclosedInEnglish,nouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbsmakeupthelargestpartofthe vocabu

59、lary.Theyare“open-classwords”,sincewecanregularlyaddnewlexical entriestotheseclasses.Theothersyntacticcategoriesare,forthemostpart, closedclasses,orclosed-classwords.Thenumberofthemishardlyalterable,theyarechangeableat1.48.Whatislexicon?Whatisword?Whatislexeme?Whatisvocabulary?Word?Lexeme?“Lexicon”,

60、initsmostgeneralsense,issynonymouswithvocabulary.Intechnicalsense,however,lexicondealswithysisandcreationofidiomsandcollocations.“Word”isaunitofuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetheritis writtenform.Thisdefinitionisperhapsalittlewhichhasexpressedinspokenor asthereareevendefinableunit,e.g.,itiz(p