分析讲稿语言学chapter

1、Chapter 2 Speech SoundsImportant sections:2.2.32.3.2 and 2.3.32.4.12.5.1Question and AnswerThe definition of phonetics: Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.Articulatory phoneticsAcoustic phoneticsAuditory phoneticsThe three branches of phoneticsThe definition

2、 of PHONOLOGY :PHONOLOGY is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to “discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur” (Crystal, 1997: 162).About forty distinctive sounds were identified for Eng

3、lish. They form a system and combine in different ways to form syllables.How to identify them: Segmentation and classificationComparison and substitutionHow do you describe a speech sound, for example, b, from the perspective of its production? b voiced bilabial stopsvoiceless alveolar fricative2.1

4、How speech sounds are made2.1.1 Speech organs1) The initiator of the air-stream (what?)Power source - lungs2) The vocal cordsThree main functions:Tightly closed-glottal stopBrought together-voicedWide open-voicelessEpiglottis/会厌Vocal cordsGlottis3)The resonating cavities (what?)The pharynxThe nasal

5、cavityThe oral cavity2.1.2 The IPA (what?) IPA the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888. It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.The idea was first proposed by the Danish grammari

6、an and phonetician Jespersen in 1886.The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was revised in 2005.The main principles of IPA (what?)There should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound.The same symbol should be used for that sound in any language. 汉xan, han ha

7、nd h nd 喝x 2.2 Consonants and vowelsWhat are the features of consonants?sounds made by a closure or narrowing in the vocal tract so that the airflow is either completely blocked, or so restricted that audible friction is producedWhat are the features of vowels?sounds articulated without a complete c

8、losure in the mouth or a degree of narrowing which would produce audible friction; the air stream escaping evenly over the center of the tongueWhat is the distinction between consonants and vowels?2.2.1 ConsonantsConsonants can be classified in two ways. What are they?What does the manner of articul

9、ation mean?ways in which articulation can be plished (1) What is the feature of stops爆破音? an explosion resulting from a momentary closure and then release of air, ph, b, th, d, kh, g北Bei (Chinese Pinyin)北Pei (IPA)(2) What is the feature of Nasals鼻音: where there is a total blockage and the sound inst

10、ead goes through the nose, /m/, /n/.(3) What is the feature of Fricatives摩擦音?where there is continuous friction at the place of articulation. /f/, /s/Sibilants are a special type of fricative where the airflow is shaped by the form of the tongue. /s/ and /z/ are sibilants in English. (4) What is the

11、 feature of Approximants延续音(semivowels or liquids)?where the sound is only partially obstructed. /w/, /r/(5) What is the feature of Laterals边音?a special type of approximant formed at one or both sides of the tongue. /l/(6) What is the feature of Trills颤音?where taps are repeated in rapid succession.

12、The double r of Spanish perro is a trill. (7) What is the feature of Taps接触音/触音and flaps闪音? When the tongue makes a single tap against the alveolar ridge to produce only one vibration, the sound is called a tap. city s and letter le.The flap () is pronounced with the tip of the tongue curled up and

13、back in a retroflex gesture and then striking the roof of the mouth in the post-alveolar region as it returns to its position behind the lower front teeth. In some forms of American English, the flap occurs in words like dirty di and sorting s, after r-colored vowels in a stressed syllable.(8) What

14、is the feature of Affricates 塞擦音? Affricates involve more than one of these manners of articulation in that they consist of a stop followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at the same place of articulation. In English, the “ch” of church and the “j” of jet are both affricates.ts and ts, in 错 a

15、nd 做What does the place of articulation mean?(1) What is the feature of Bilabials唇音? two lips: /m/(2) What is the feature of Labiodentals唇齿音? the lower lip and the upper front teeth: /f/(3) What is the feature of Dentals齿音? the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth: /(4) What is the feature

16、of Alveolars齿龈音?the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge: /t/(5) What is the feature of Post-alveolars后齿龈音? the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge: /(6) What is the feature of Palatals硬颚音?the tongue front and the hard palate: /j/(7) What is the feature of Velars软颚音?the tongue back a

17、nd the soft palate: /k/(8) What is the feature of Glottals声门音?/h/How do you describe a vowel, for example, i:, from the perspective of its production?i high front tense unrounded vowel high back lax rounded vowel 2.2.2 VowelsWhat are the features of vowels?sounds articulated without a complete closu

18、re in the mouth or a degree of narrowing which would produce audible friction; the air stream escaping evenly over the center of the tongueWhat is the distinction between consonants and vowels?What does close in the IPA mean? describe the jaw as open or closed, jaw opennessClose-mid? open-mid? open?

19、What does front mean? the position of the highest part of the tongueCentral? Back ? Features of vowelsthe openness of the jaw (the IPA)close, close-mid, open-mid, open(the height of tongue raising (the English sounds)high, mid, low)the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back

20、)length (long vs. short) or tenseness (tense vs. lax)the shape of the lips: the degree of lip rounding (rounded, unrounded)Cardinal vowels 基元音Cardinal vowels are suggested to provide a reference frame for vowel descriptionSome cardinal vowels (e.g., i, u, ) are produced when the tongue is in an extr

21、eme position ( either front or back, high or low) i: produced with the tongue as far forward and as high in the mouth as is possible (without producing friction), with spread lips. u: produced with the tongue as far back and as high in the mouth as is possible, with protruded lips. : produced with t

22、he tongue as low and as far back in the mouth as possible.Eight primary cardinal vowels are defined based onthe highest position the tongue can achieve without producing audible friction;the lowest position the tongue can achievetwo intermediate levelsA set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained b

23、y reversing the lip-rounding for a given position.SCHWA - , positioned in the center of the cardinal vowel frame, weakened pronunciation of any vowelWhat are semi-vowels, pure or monophthongs, vowel glides, diphthongs, triphthongs, respectively?2.2.3 The sounds of EnglishHow are consonants described

24、?Voicing, the place of articulation, the manner of articulationDescribe each consonantp voiceless bilabial stopb voiced bilabial stopBilabialLabio-dentaldentalalveolarpost-alveolarpalatalvelarglottalnasal m n stopp b t dk fricativef v s z haffricatet dapproximant(w)rjwLaterallConsonants in EnglishHo

25、w are vowels described?Description by features:i high front tense unrounded vowel high back lax rounded vowelmid central lax unrounded vowel low back lax rounded vowelPlease describe each vowelReceived Pronunciation and General American (what?)The difference between RP and GASlight difference betwee

26、n the English vowels and the cardinal vowels in IPAAbout forty distinctive sounds were identified for English. They form a system and combine in different ways to form syllables.How to identify them: Segmentation and classificationComparison and substitution2.3.2 PhonemesSome people from Hubei and C

27、hongqing have problems with the English /l/ and /n/ sounds, so that sometimes a word like nice comes to be pronounced like lice. In their dialects /l/ and /n/ are simply not distinctive soundsthere are no word pairs, like English nice and lice where the /l/, /n/ difference is crucial to distinguish

28、words. They simply do not hear the difference between these two sounds, since they do not hear it, they often cannot produce it.In linguistic parlance, /l/ and /n/ are two phonemes in English, but not in some of the dialects in Hubei and Chongqing.Similarly, speakers of some languages have problems

29、with the English /l/ and /r/ sounds, so that sometimes a word like rice comes to be pronounced like lice, and like may be rike. In these languages /l/ and /r/ are simply not distinctive sounds.In linguistic parlance, /l/ and /r/ are two phonemes in English, but not in languages described above.jin (

30、音) and ji (英) in some dialects in Anqings and , ts and t, ts and t in some dialects in the north-east of Chinaxu (黄) vs w (王)Whats the result of replacing b in bin (bin) by ph?A different word: phin (pin)Whats the result of replacing t in stnd (stand) by th Not result in a different word, just sound

31、 non-native (or unintelligible)Whats the result of replacing ai in ai (either) by i:Not result in a different word, different sounds preferred by different peoplestnd (stand) vs. sthnd t and th: similar sounds, of the same sound type (sounds of the same phoneme)bin (bin) vs. phin (pin)b and ph: fair

32、ly similar sounds, not of the same sound type (sounds of different phonemes)ai vs. i:ai and i: not similar sounds (sounds of different phonemes)PhonemePhoneme: A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language is a phoneme. Its a basic unit in phonological analysis

33、. It is not any particular sound, but an abstract segment. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. Phoneme is a sound type in the mind.The phoneme is the smallest meaning-distinguishing unit. Phonemes are placed in slashes “/ / ”.Neither the sound p in pit or the sou

34、nd b in bit is a phoneme. They are phones; they are the phonetic realization of the phoneme /p/ and /b/. A methodology of phonology analysis: to check whether the change of a sound in a word changes the word into another one.A minimal pair (What?)A minimal pair is two words that differ in only one s

35、ound.This technique can be used to find out which sound substitutions changes a word into another one.For English, it leads to the identification of over 40 phonemes2.3.3 Allophones2.3.3 Allophones (what, examples)A phoneme is an abstract sound type, which is realized in different phones (sounds) in

36、 different contexts, which are allophones of the phoneme. p (spik) /p/ p (pik) t (st:) /t/ t (t:)Allophones are often in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same place. (how to represent the complementary distribution?) The complementary distribution is represented as follows.

37、 (1) /p/ p /s _ p elsewhere /: when, under the condition that _: the focus bar, indicating the position of the target segment /p/ p /s _ p elsewhereThe two rules and their ordering are based on the Elsewhere Condition: The more specific rule applies first.Another example of the Elsewhere Condition:

38、the past tense phoneme /d/ d /coronal, -cont, -nasal _ t / -voiced _ d in other placesd is distributed most widely and applied last, and d is the most specific one (only occurring after t or d) and applied first among the three, according to the Elsewhere Condition.Another example of complementary d

39、istribution (2) /l/ l / _ V / V _Free variationIn some cases, the speaker is able to select freely from variant phones, based on personal habit or preference.Free variation is the interchangeable relationship between two phones, in which the phones may substitute for one another in the same environm

40、ent without causing a change in meaning.The free variant phones may be allophones of the same phoneme or phones of different phonemeskhp vs khp ap vs ap 鸭, jat vs jat 一, kuk vs kuk 国in Guangzhou？n and l in Wuhan and Chongqings and in some parts of Chinaeither i aeconomics eknmks iknmksdirection drkn

41、 darknFree variation is different from complementary distribution (what?)Revision questionsDiscuss the following question. The pronunciation of tell is te, but that of teller is tel. Discuss why the phoneme /l/ is realized as and l respectively in this situation. Why are p (piau标) and ph (phiau飘) re

42、presented by different letters (b and p), and a (in ai), (in yan), and (in ang) by the same letter (a) in Chinese Pinyin?Are n and l allophones of the same phoneme in Putonghua?No. But they are allophones of the same phoneme in Wuhan dialect.Are n and allophones of the same phoneme in Putonghua?No.

43、But they are allophones of the same phoneme in some dialects in Anqing.Are s and allophones of the same phoneme in Putonghua? What about ts and t? ts and t? No. But they are allophones of the same phoneme in Northeast China?Exercises2.4 Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive feat

44、ures2.4.1 Assimilation (what?)a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring soundex. 2-1a. cap kp can knb. tap tp tan tnNASALIZATIONNasalization rulenasal +nasal / _ +nasalAnother exampleWant to go wann guex. 2-2a. ten tn tenth tnb. nine nan ninth nanDENTALIZ

45、ATIONDentalization ruledental +dental / _ +dentalAn example for labialization面 in 面子、面条: mjn面 in 面包 mjmex. 2-3a. since sns sink skb. mince mns mink mkVELARIZATIONVelarization rulevelar +velar / _ +velarex. 2-6 slow normala. five past favpst fafpstb. love to lvt lftc. has to hzt hstd. as can be shown

46、 zknbn sknbne. lose five-nil luzfavnl lusfavnlf. edge to edge t tDEVOICINGDevoicing rule:+voice fricative -voice / _ -voice REGRESSIVE and PROGRESSIVE ASSIMILATIONIf a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it REGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION; the converse process, in which a preceding sou

47、nd is influencing a following sound, is known as PROGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION.Whats the reason for assimilation?: Coarticulation Speech production occurs through the continuous movement of the articulators without natural pauses. Map:In producing m the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the

48、 nasal tract. To produce the following vowel , the soft palate must move from its lowered position back to its normal position. This process is still in progress when the articulation of has begunLambThe velum begins to lower itself during the articulation of so that it is ready for the following na

49、sal.Such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are called COARTICULATION. Map:perseverative coarticulation progressive assimilation Lambanticipatory coarticulation regressive assimilationAssimilation is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation, which is more of a phonetic

50、 term.Two ways to transcribe speech soundsWhats the difference between broad and narrow transcriptions?Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only. Narrow transcription: transcription with letter-symbols together with diacritics. This is the transcription required and used by the pho

51、neticians in their study of speech sounds.Diacritics变音符/附加符号: A set of symbols added to the letter-symbols to show that it has a sound value different from that of the same letter without the mark.2.4.3 Distinctive featuresWhats the difference between /b/ and /p/ /b/: +voiced/p/: -voicedvoiced can d

52、istinguish two phonemes in English, and thus it is a distinctive feature in English.A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes a phoneme from another.voiced is a distinctive feature in English. Is it a distinctive feature in Chinese Putonghua?ta 搭 vs dapa 八vs baNo. Chinese plosives, fric

53、atives, and affricates are all voiceless.Is aspirated a distinctive feature in Putonghua?tha他, ta搭 pha葩, pa巴 khe科, ke歌Yes. There is a distinction between +aspirated and -aspirated plosives, fricatives, or affricates in Chinese Putonghua.Is aspirated a distinctive feature in English?stand stnd vs. st

54、hnd speak spi:k vs. sphi:kscar sk: vs. skh:No.pbtdkgfvszhmnwlrjconsonantalapproximantsonorantcontinuant/+/+stridentnasallateralvoicedPLACELLCCDDLLCCCCCCRLCDLCCCCCanteriorNotes: (Source: Radford, et al. 1999: 141)1) L = Labial, C = Coronal, D = Dorsal, R = Radical.2) “/+” is a special type of feature

55、 value for an affricate indicating that the sound has both specifications, one after another.3) anterior is used to separate coronal into two further regions.Table 2.6 Distinctive feature matrix for English consonant phonemesWhy was the idea of DISTINCTIVE FEATURES developed?to distinguish a phoneme

56、 (or a group of phonemes) from another1/p/b/2/t/d/3/k/g/4/f/v/5/6/s/z/7/n/ vs. /l/:/n/ vs. /; To represent phonological rules affecting a class of phonemes sharing certain featuresThe regular past tense forms/d/ d /coronal, -cont, -nasal _ t / -voiced _ d in other placesThe features coronal, -cont,

57、-nasal are sufficient to separate t and d from all other consonants2.5 SuprasegmentalsWhat are SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES (超音位特征)?those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments, including stress, tone, intonation, etc.2.5.1 The syllable structure Describe the structure of the syll

58、able /krkt/ (cracked)A syllable can be divided into two parts, _ and _. Keys: the rhyme (rime), the onsetThe vowel within the rhyme is _, with the consonant(s) after it termed _. Keys: the nucleus, the codaA syllable must have a _ but not all syllables contain an _ and a _. A syllable that has no co

59、da is called an _ while a syllable with a coda is a _.Keys: nucleus, onset, coda, open syllable, closed syllable/l/ (all)nucleus =/, coda =/l/tl/ (tall)onset = /t/, nucleus =/, coda =/l/stres/ (strengths) onset = /str/, nucleus =/e/, coda =/s/twelfs/ (twelfths)onset = /tw/, nucleus =/e/, coda =/lfs/

60、glu:/ (glue)onset = /gl/, nucleus = /u/What is the difference between Chinese and English in terms of the structure of syllables?English: (C)C)C)V(C)C)C)C) /stres/twelfs/ Chinese: (C)V(C) /nan/ (南)Sonority scale: A sonority hierarchy or sonority scale is a ranking of speech sounds (or phones) by amp