英语语言学教程句子PPT课件

1、1 Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures. 句法学研究组词成句的规则，研究句子内部组成成分间的关系。第1页/共101页2 Syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds: rela

2、tions of position relations of substitutability relations of co-occurrence1. Syntactic relations（句法关系）第2页/共101页31.1 Relations of Position （位置关系） For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause. The

3、 boy kicked the ball NP1 NP2 Subject Object第3页/共101页4 Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungramma

4、tical or nonsensical at all. For example,第4页/共101页5 The boy kicked the ball *Boy the ball kicked the *The ball kicked the boy The teacher saw the students The students saw the teacher第5页/共101页6 Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations（横组合关系） observed by F. de S

5、aussure. They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations. 第6页/共101页7 Word order is one of the basic ways to classify languages in the world: SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS. English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order. 第7页/共101

6、页81.2 Relation of Substitutability （替换关系） The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. The _ smiles. man boy girl第8页/共101页9 It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly subs

7、titutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.strong man The tallest boy smiles.pretty girl yesterday. He went therelast week. the day before.第9页/共101页10 This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic Relations（纵聚合关系）by Hjemslev（叶尔姆斯列夫） To make it more unders

8、tandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations. 第10页/共101页111.3 Relation of Co-occurrence （同现关系/纵横关系） It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. For

9、 instance, a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective(s) and followed by a verbal phrase. 第11页/共101页12 Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations. 第12页/共101页132. Grammatical construction and its constituents 2.1 Grammatical

10、 Construction GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION （语法结构体）or CONSTRUCT can be used to refer to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains

11、.第13页/共101页14lOn the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and its internal properties. lThe external syntax of a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole, that is to say, anything speakers know about the construction that is rele

12、vant to the larger syntactic contexts in which it is welcome.lFor instance, the different terms such as clausal type, phrasal type are assigned to the properties of the constructions respectively. 第14页/共101页1515Subject +Verb +Object (clausal type)Mary (subject)ate (verb)an apple (object).Determiner

13、+Noun (phrasal type)this (determiner)edition (noun)7/6/2022LINGUISTICS第15页/共101页1616 In the context of discourse/text analysis, construction refers to a token of a constructional type. The sentence The girl is giggling is recognised as “Subject + Predicate” type, but it is realized in a string The +

14、 girl + is + giggling. It is the construction in this sense that can be analysed into constituents. 7/6/2022LINGUISTICS第16页/共101页172.2 Immediate Constituents(直接成分) Constituent（成分）is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: the girl (NP) ate the apple (VP

15、) the girl ate the apple (S)第17页/共101页1818 Constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units. If two constituents, in the case of the example above, B (the girl) and C (ate the apple), are joined to form a hierarchically higher constituent A (“S” , here a sentence ), t

16、hen B and C are said to be immediate constituents of A. 7/6/2022LINGUISTICS第18页/共101页1919 A (Sentence) B CThe girl ate the apple7/6/2022LINGUISTICS第19页/共101页2020 This tree contains three Nodes. The top-most node, A, is the mother of the two lower nodes, B and C. B and C are daughters of the same mot

17、her, and so we refer to them as sister nodes. The simple tree in the above represents a constituent of category A which is composed of two parts, one of category B and the other of category C, occurring in that order. 7/6/2022LINGUISTICS第20页/共101页2121 To dismantle a grammatical construction in this

18、way is called IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS or IC analysis (直接成分分析法)，the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents-word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached7

19、/6/2022LINGUISTICS第21页/共101页2222 When a tree diagram is used to represent the constituent structure of a grammatical unit (e.g. a phrase or sentence), syntactic categories are used to label the nodes; the most common of these are listed in the following: 7/6/2022LINGUISTICS第22页/共101页2323Word-levelPh

20、rasalN= nounA=adjectiveV=verbP=prepositionDet=determinerAdv=adverbConj=conjunctionNP=noun phraseAP=adjective phraseVP=verb phrasePP=preposition phraseS=sentence or clause7/6/2022LINGUISTICS第23页/共101页24Immediate Constituent Analysis(IC Analysis)The girl ate the apple第24页/共101页2525Tree diagram S NP VP

21、Det N V NP Det NThe girl ate the apple7/6/2022LINGUISTICS第25页/共101页2626Bracketing In contrast to tree diagram, BRACKETING is not so common, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent structure of a grammatical unit. (The) (girl) (ate) (the) (apple) The girl ate the apple7/6/2022L

22、INGUISTICS第26页/共101页27Advantages of IC Analysis To demonstrate the internal structure of a sentence clearly To reveal the ambiguitiesLeave the book on the shelf.第27页/共101页28 Leave the book on the shelf Leave the book on the shelf第28页/共101页292.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions (向心结构和离心结构) Th

23、e syntactic constructions analysed are of two main types: endocentric and exocentric constructions, depending on their distribution and the relation between their constituents. 第29页/共101页3030 ENDOCENTRIC construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its

24、constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD.其整体功能与其某个或某些组成成分（单个词或词组）相同或相似，这个词组是整体的核心或中心。因此向心结构也叫做中心结构 。 Typical endocentric constructions are noun phrases (the three small children), verb phrases(will have been leaving), adjective phrases (really very l

25、ate).7/6/2022LINGUISTICS第30页/共101页31第31页/共101页32 The head is not necessarily the last constituent. It may occur at the beginning. the book on the shelfthe man about whom Ive been talkingwalked away immediatelyhot beyond enduranceafraid of the talk第32页/共101页33 EXOCENTRIC construction refers to a grou

26、p of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including the basic sentence, the prepositional phrase, the predicate (verb + object) construction, and the connect

27、ive (be + complement) construction.第33页/共101页34 The boy smiled. (Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.) He hid behind the door. (Neither constituent can function as an adverbial.) He kicked the ball. (Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.) John

28、seemed angry. (After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)第34页/共101页35 朱德熙在语法答问中指出： 布龙姆菲尔德（L.Bloomfield）把句法结构分成两类：至少有一个直接成分跟整体的语法功能相同的结构叫“向心结构”。向心结构里跟整体的功能相同的直接成分是这个向心结构的核心（head）。所有的直接成分都跟整体的语法功能不同的结构叫离心结构。（L.Bloomfield，Language，194-195页）例如偏正结构（包括定语加中心语的名词性偏正结构和状语加中心语的谓词性偏正结构）的语法功

29、能跟它的后一个直接成分（中心语）相同，述宾结构和述补结构的语法功能都跟它的前一个直接成分（述语）相同，所以都是向心结构。主谓结构的语法功能跟它的两个直接成分（主语和谓语）都不一样，所以是离心结构。所有由虚词组成的句法结构如介词结构，“的”字结构等等也都是离心结构。联合结构的语法功能跟它的每一项组成成分都相同，是一种多核心的向心结构，布龙姆菲尔德管它叫并列式向心结构（co-ordinative endocentric construction）。第35页/共101页36 布氏向心/离心结构理论的一些问题：1 布氏的理论本身并不是完美无缺的。这一点布氏本人已经有所认识。并非所有的向心结构其整体功能

30、都与中心语或核心完全一致，因此“向心/离心”结构理论即使就英语来说也不是一种能够覆盖所有合成短语的分析模式。2 可以这样理解向心/离心结构理论：在一个AB结构体中，如果AB的整体功能和其中的某个成分一致，那AB就是向心结构。否则为离心结构。跟整体功能一致的成分就是结构核心。这个理解在汉语中碰到了麻烦，“雷锋精神”成为双核心的向心结构，“这本书的出版”中“出版”变成了结构核心。如果从结构上来考虑，所有的结构都是向心结构。如果从功能上来考虑就有两种情况，一种是结构核心和整体功能一致的结构，另一种是结构核心和整体功能不一致的结构。主谓短语、动宾短语在结构上都是向心的，但是在功能上则不是向心的。至于叫

31、他什么，那就无所谓了。第36页/共101页372.4 Coordination and Subordination Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordinationsubordination第37页/共101页38Coordination 并列结构 Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by gro

32、uping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or . These two or more words or phrases or clauses have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally. 第38页/共101页39 Coordin

33、ation of NPs: NP the lady or NP the tiger Coordination of VPs: VP go to the library and VP read a book Coordination of PPs: PP down the stairs and PP out the door Coordination of APs: AP quite expensive and AP very beautiful Coordination of Ss: S John loves Mary and S Mary loves John too.第39页/共101页4

34、0 In a coordinate sentence, two (or more) S constituents occur as daughters and co-heads of a higher S. One property coordination reveals is that there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction. NP A man, a woman, a boy, a cat and a dog got into the

35、 car. Therefore, coordination occupies its own place in the creativity of language: i.e.recursiveness第40页/共101页41Subordination 从属结构 Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually

36、a constituent of the other. The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers. 第41页/共101页42 two dogs Head (My brother) can drink (wine). Head Swimming in the lake (is fun). Head (The pepper was) hot beyond endurance. Head第42页/共101页43Subordinate

37、clauses Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses: complement clauses adjunct (or adverbial) clauses relative clauses第43页/共101页44 John believes that the airplane was invented by an Irishman. (complement clause) Elizabeth opened her presents b

38、efore John finished his dinner. (adverbial clause) The woman that I love is moving to the south. (relative clause) 第44页/共101页453. Syntactic Function 句法功能 The syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. Names of fu

39、nctions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc. 第45页/共101页463.1 Subject In some languages, subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case. The typical example can be found in Latin, where subject is always in nominative case, such as pater an

40、d filius in the following examples. pater filium amat (the father loves the son) patrum filius amat (the son loves the father) 第46页/共101页47 In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent.

41、 This definition seems to work for these sentences: Mary slapped John. A dog bit Bill. 第47页/共101页48 but is clearly wrong in the following examples: John was bitten by a dog. John underwent major heart surgery. In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “gra

42、mmatical subject” (John) and “logical subject” (a dog). 第48页/共101页49 Another traditional definition of the subject is “what the sentence is about” (i.e., topic). Again, this seems to work for many sentences, such as Bill is a very crafty fellow. but fails in others, such as (Jack is pretty reliable,

43、 but) Bill I dont trust. As for Bill, I wouldnt take his promises very seriously. 第49页/共101页50 All three sentences seem to be “about” Bill; thus we could say that Bill is the topic of all three sentences. The above sentences make it clear that the topic is not always the grammatical subject. What ch

44、aracteristics do subjects have? Word order Pro-forms Agreement with verb Content questions Tag questions第50页/共101页51Word order 词序 Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement: Sally collects stamps. *Collects Sally stamps.第51页/共101页52Pro-forms The first and third person pronouns in English

45、appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions: He loves me. I love him. We threw stones at them. They threw stones at us. 第52页/共101页53Agreement with the verb In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third pe

46、rson subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb: She angers him. They anger him. She angers them. 第53页/共101页54Content questions If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest o

47、f the sentence remains unchanged, as in John stole the Queens picture from the British Council. Who stole the Queens picture from the British council? 第54页/共101页55 What would John steal, if he had the chance? What did John steal from the British Council? Where did John steal the Queens picture from?

48、nWhen any other element of the sentence is replaced by a question word, an auxiliary verb must appear before the subject.第55页/共101页56Tag question A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element

49、in the sentence. John loves Mary, doesnt he? Mary loves John, doesnt she? *John loves Mary, doesnt she?第56页/共101页573.2 Predicate Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together. It

50、 usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject. The boy is running. (process) Peter broke the glass. (action) Jane must be mad! (state) The word predicator is suggested for verb or verbs included in a predicate.第57页/共101页583.3 Object Traditionally, object may refer to th

51、e “receiver” or “goal” of an action, and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object. Mother bought a doll. Mother gave my sister a doll. IO DO 第58页/共101页59 In some inflecting languages, object is marked by case labels: the accusative case (受格) for direct object, and the dative c

52、ase (与格) for indirect object. In English, “object” is recognized by tracing its relation to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pronouns). Mother gave a doll to my sister. John kicked me.第59页/共101页60 Modern linguists suggest that object refers to such an item that it c

53、an become subject in a passive transformation. John broke the glass. The glass was broken by John. Peter saw Jane. Jane was seen by Peter. Although there are nominal phrases in the following, they are by no means objects because they cannot be transformed into passive voice. He died last week. The m

54、atch lasted three hours. He changed trains at Manchester. (*Trains were changed by him at Manchester.)第60页/共101页61613.4 The Relation between Classes and Functions Classes and functions determine each other, but not in any one-to-one relation. A class item can perform several functions. For instance,

55、 a noun or a nominal phrase can function as the subject, object, modifier, adverbial and complement of a sentence. A function can also be fulfilled by several classes. For instance, the subject of a sentence can be realized by a noun, pronoun, numeral, infinitive, etc.7/6/2022LINGUISTICS第61页/共101页62

56、4. Category 范畴The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units: Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability Categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice第62页/共101页634.1 Number 数 Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displayi

57、ng such contrasts as singular, dual, plural,(单数，双数，复数) etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog: dogs. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs: They laugh, this man: these men.第63页

58、/共101页64 In other languages, for example, French, the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles. le cheval royal (the royal horse) les chevaux royaux (the royal horses)第64页/共101页654.2 Gender 性 Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. f

59、or the analysis of word classes. Though there is a correlation between natural gender and grammatical gender, the assignment may seem quite arbitrary in many cases. For instance, in Latin, ignis fire is masculine, while flamma flame is feminine. 第65页/共101页66 English gender contrast can only be obser

60、ved in pronouns and a small number of nouns, and, they are mainly of the natural gender type. he: she: it prince: princess author: authoress第66页/共101页67 In French, gender is manifested also both in adjectives and articles. beau cadeau (fine gift) belle maison (fine house) Le cadeau est beau. (The gi