建筑合同和担保的类型1

1、1Types of Construction Contracts and Bonds1 Types of construction Contractsthere are manytypes of construction contracts and the owner generally makes theselection of contract type. The type of contract selected depends on the kind of workbeing performed and the conditions under which it is being pe

2、rformed.1.1 Lump sumLump sum contract are typically used for buildings. The quantities of the materialsrequired can be calculated with sufficient accuracy during the bidding process to allowcontractor to submit a single lump sumprice for the work .The quantity of items such asdrywall, door frames, b

3、athroom sinks, electrical conduit and wiring, and roof tiles can becalculated accurately from the plans. When a clear definition of the quantities and qualityof work required is provided by the contract documents, submitting a single lump sumbid is fair to the contractors1.2 Unit priceUnit price con

4、tracts are used for work where it is not possible to calculate the exactquantity of materials that will be required. Unit-price contracts are commonly used forheavy highway work. The designer may calculate that 1,000,000 cy of earth needs to bemoved, but the owner and contractors know that after the

5、 work has been completed, thecontractor will not have movedexactly 1,000,000. The exact quantity will vary. The fairsolution to the problem is for the owner to tell the contractor what the estimated quantityis, and then to pay the contractor for the exact measured amount after the work iscomplete.Co

6、ntractors submit a price for each item on a unit-price contract. Unit prices aremultiplied by the engineer s estimated quantities and totaled. The low bidder is thebidder with the low total of all items. Items whose actual quantity varies from theestimated quantity by more than 15 or 20%,either abov

7、e or below the estimated quantity,are sometimes subject to renegotiation of the unit price. When the actual quantity is low,the contractor may request a renegotiated higher price because the anticipated amountof earned overhead has been reduced. When the actual quantity is high, the ownermayrequest

8、a renegotiated unit price for the opposite reason. The goal of unit-pricecontracts is fairness to both parties.1.3 Cost PlusCost plus(cost reimbursable)contracts are used in situations that make it difficult orimpossible for either the owner or the contractor to predict their costs during thenegotia

9、tion, bid, and award process. Factors that may make the calculation of costsimpossible include unpredictable and extreme weather conditions such as would be2encountered in the Antarctic, unknowntransportation requirements to remote locations,combat or war, or contracts where the amount of effort tha

10、t will be required depends onanother contractors work.Cost plus contracts take many forms, the most commonbeing cost plus a fixed feeand cost plus a percentage. Most owners prefer cost plus fixed fee because then theamount of profit the contractor will earn cannot increase, thereby removing any ince

11、ntivefor the contractor to be anything less than thrifty, or to produce poor-quality work. Costplus percent contracts may be fairin situations thatare very difficult,or when thetime to complete the work is not known with any certainty, but some incentives tomaintain productivity are needed. A profit

12、 that can be earned in six months may not beattractive if there is a possibility that the work may require a year or two.1.4 Innovations and TrendsA+B contracts are a relatively new innovation imported from Europe. They weredeveloped by the Departments of Transportation to reduce the time highways a

13、re underconstruction, and therefore are restricting traffic flow. Many highway projects involverenovation, repair, improvement, or widening. Very few are true new constructionprojects. The purpose of the A+B contract is to provide a way to compensate thecontractor for the expertise in sequencing and

14、 staging to complete the work quickly andefficiently.“ A+B” means cost plus time. The Department of Transportation will assign a valueto each day the highway work is being performed and the contractors will then bid a priceplus a number of days. The low bidder is determined as the low total of the v

15、alue of costplus time. It is, of course, very possible to select a low bidder who bids a higher price, butfewer days , than the other contractors.There are other forms of contracts, each with its own specialized purpose. Forinstance, guaranteed maximum price contracts are sometimes used for negotiat

16、ed workthat is started before the design is complete, making it difficult or impossible for thecontractor to estimate the price accurately. This type of contract is also sometimes usedwhen one contractor defaults on a partially complete contract, and a secondcontractor finishes the project.2.Contrac

17、ting methods refers to the contractual arrangementsthe ownerusers to procure a project, whereas contract types refer to how the contractor would bepaid for performing the work.2.1Design-BuildDesign-Build contract are exactly what the name implies. On contractor is responsiblefor both the design and

18、construction. This type of contracting is growing in popularity. Adesign-build contract provides distinct advantages to the owner who no longer needs toreferee disagreements between the designer and the contractor because they areworking together under the sane contract. Design-build contracts are o

19、ften structured onaccost plus with a: guaranteed maximum price (GMP) basis. Often the savings belowthe GMPis shared by the owner and contractor.There is extensive information on3design-build contracts from the Design-Build Institute of America at2.2 Design-build-operateDesign-build-operate are not a

20、s common as design-build contracts.They may be used for projects such as athletic arenas, water treatment plants, waterpurification facilities, and toll highways. The principle is that the contractor will retainsome percentage of ownership in the facility, up to 100%, for a specified period of time,

21、and operate the facility for a profit during that time to recoup the capital investment (totalcost plus profit). The period of ownership by the contractor may vary from a few years topermanent. During the period of ownership, the contractor is responsible for all costs ofownership, and all profits r

22、esulting from ownership. In the case of athletic arenas, thereis typically a revenue-or profit-sharing agreement with the team ownership ormunicipality.3. Bonds (Guarantees)In any bond there are three parties-the principal (contractor), the surety (bondingcompany) and the obligee (owner). The surety

23、 and the principal make a joint and severalguarantee to the owner, that is both parties are obligated to the owner.3.1 Bid BondsBid bonds have two purposes: (1) to guarantee the contractor will enter into acontract if determined to be the lowest responsible bidder and (2) to guarantee thecontractor

24、will provide the required payment and performance bonds, and insurancepolicies. When the performance and payment bonds have been submitted, thecontractor is released from thebid bond obligations.Most bid bonds are what we call spread bid bonds, they require only forfeiture of thedifference between t

25、he low bid and the next bidder sprice if the two guarantees are not met. There are also penal sum bonds. A penal sumbond is stated in the form of actual damagesup to a limiting amount.3.2 Performance BondsPerformance Bonds guarantee the performance of the contract requirements at thestated bid price

26、. In effect, the surety is saying it guarantees the performance of thecontractor, or it will complete the project as described in the plans and specifications.The surety is in the position of being asked to guarantee the contractor sperformance.Therefore, the contractor must demonstrate an ability t

27、o perform before the surety iswilling to issue payment and performance bonds. The surety will visit the contractor shomeoffice and job sites, and will contact the owners of recently completed contracts.Contractors must develop a long-standing working relationship with their surety, andthey must lear

28、n to present their company in its most favorable light whenapplying forpayment and performance bonds. They must work consistently with a surety whowillunderwrite projects with specific constraints of project type, location, and size. If a4contractor defaults on performance of the contract, the suret

29、y who will underwriteprojects with specific constraints of project type, location, and size .if a contractordefaults on performance of the contract, the surety has three basic choices:1) Buy back the bond. This amounts to giving he owner a check for the amount of it.( 2 ) Replace the contractor. Neg

30、otiate or advertise for bids for the purpose of retaininganother contractor to finish the work.3) Finance the contractor. The bonding companyruns the risk of spending more thanthe value of the bond, but this is still a commonoption because the contractor is familiarwith the project.Today most sureti

31、es try to replace the contractor.3.3 Payment BondsThe Miller Act of 1935 provides that on federal projects over $200,000,the contractormust furnish payment and performance bonds in a satisfactory amount. Most stateshave passed Little Miller Actlegislation.Government agencies require bonds because co

32、ntractorscannot place a lien on government-owned property. The Miller Act and state-level LittleMiller Acts provide the mechanism to guarantee the performance of the generalcontractor, and that the subcontracors, labor, and suppliers will be paid.建筑合同和担保的类型1建筑合同的类型建筑合同有许多类型， 通常由业主来选择合同的类型。 合同类型的选择取决

33、于所执行胡工作的种类以及它是在什么样的条件下执行的。1.1 总价合同总价合同通常使用在建筑领域。 在招标过程中要对所需要的材料的数量进行 足够精确的计算，以使承包人提交出该工作的一个价格总量。每个项目的数量，例如干式墙、门框、浴室的水池、输电的管道和线，以及房顶的瓦片都需要从计 划时就进行精确的计算。 当工程需要材料的数量和质量在合同文件中都清楚说明 了，提交一个投标总额对承包人来说才是公平胡。1.2 单价合同单价合同用于不可能对所需的材料总量进行精确估算的工作。 单价合同通常 用在繁重的公路工程上。设计者可能计算有 1000 000m3的土需要被移动，但是3业主和承包人知 道工程结束后， 承

34、包人是不可能恰好移动 1000 000m3的土的。 精确的数量将会改变。 对这个问题公正的解决办法是业主告诉承包人估计的总 量，在工程结束后按精确量出的 数量支付承包人。承包人提交的是一个单价合同里对每个项目定的价格。 单位价格乘以工程师 估计5的量相差可以超过 15%或 20%，可能高于或低于估计的量，有时对单位价格 还要进行协商。当实际的量较低时， 承包商也许会要求重新确定一个较高的价格， 因为预期所挣得的总额减少了。 当实际的量较高时， 业主因为相反的原因也许会 要求重新定一个价格。单位价格合同的目的是公平地对待合同双方。1.3 成本附加成本附加（可回收费用） 合同用于业主和承包人在谈判

35、、 投标和授权的过程 中均很难或不可能确定他们成本的情况。 有一些因素使得对成本进行计算是不可 能的，包括不可预知的极差的天气情况（例如在南极地带可能遇到） ，偏僻地区 的不可预知的运输需求， 争斗或战争， 或者工作量需要依赖其他承包商的工作的 合同。成本附加合同有许多形式， 最普通的是正价加固定的附加费以及正价加上正 价的一定百分比。 大多数业主宁愿选择正价加固定的附加费， 因为这样承包人所 获得的利益总量不可能增加， 因此除去了承包人会作出不节约或生产出较差质量 工程的任何动机。正价加上正价的一定百分比的合同也许对条件十分艰苦的情况 下是十分公平的， 或者工程完成的时间不可确定时， 但是为

36、了保持生产率作出一 些激励是需要的。 如果工程有可能需要一年或两年， 则仅由六个月所挣到的利润就不再有吸引力了1.4 改革和趋势A+B 式合同是从欧洲传过来的相对较新的改革。 它们是由运输局开发以减少公路 建设的时间以及因此对交通流进行限制的时间。 许多公路工程项目包括翻新、 修 复、改造以及加宽。真正的新建工程很少。 A+B 合同的目的是提供一种可以付给 承包人报酬的方法， 考虑补偿其定施工顺序和分段等方面的专业性， 以使工程可 以快速有效地完成。“A+B的意思是成本加上时间。运输局对每天公路工程完成的数量进行指定，承包人投标给出的是一定的成本和所需的天数。 以成本加上时间合计较低来确定 低

37、投标人。 当然也有可能选择出价较高但是工作天数较少的低投标人， 而不是其 它的承包人。合同还有其他一些形式， 每个都有它自己专门的目的。 例如， 担保最高价格 的合同，用在设计完成前就开始进行谈判的使用， 这时承包人非常困难或不可能 精确的估计出价格。 这种形式的合同也经常用在一个承包人对只完成了一部分的 合同的内容没有履行职责，另一承包人完成了这个工程的情况。2订立合同的方法订立合同的方法是只业主为了促成一项工程使用的合同的安排， 但是合同形 式是指怎样支付执行工程的承包人。2.1 设计建造设计建造合同的意思就是它的名字所表现出来的。 一个承包人在设计和建 造上6都有责任。 这种类型的承包逐渐变得很流行。 一个设计建造合同给业主提 供了明显的有利条件，他就不必在设计者和承包人之间意见不合时当调解人了， 因为在同一个合同下他们是在一起工作的。 设计建造合同通常建立在一个成本 加上一个对最大花费的担保（GMP 的基础上。通常因花费低于 GMF 而节省下的钱 是由业主和承包人分享。从美国设计建造协会可以获得大量的