语言学教程答案

1、Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics语言学导论 Design feature: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc. 本质特征：决定了我们人类语言性质的特征被称为本质特征，包括任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性、文化传播性等等。 Commuication can take many forms, such as sign, spe

2、ech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language? (Ex. 7)Less arbitary, lack duality, less creative, limited repertoire, emotional-oriented.身体语言和面部表情不像人类语言那样具有任意性和创造性，它不具有二层性，只有有限的指令，并且是感情导向的。 Do you agre

3、e with the view that no language is especially simple?(Ex. 8)Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. This is decided by their shared design features. 能。所有的人类语言都是复杂的交流系统，这是由它们所共有的符号特征所决定的。 Arbitrariness: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to the

4、ir meaning.任意性指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系。1 Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning语素的音和义之间的任意性2 Arbitrariness at the syntactic level句法上的任意性3 Arbitrariness and convention任意性和约定性 Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meanin

5、g?你认为拟声词是形式和意义之间的非任意的联结吗？(Ex. 4)Not really. Onomatopoeia is at most suggestive of the natural sounds they try to capture. They are arbitrary as signifiers. 并非如此，拟声至多提示了它们所要表达的自然声响，而它们作为能指是任意的。 A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this

6、 be expressed “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Ex. 5)Yes. Changing the order of the two clauses may change the meaning of the sentence, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators such as “be

7、fore” or “after” will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening.这反映了词序的非任意性。改变两个小句的顺序会改变句子的意思，因为小句如果只是按线形排列而无时间词提示，如“before”或“after”，我们就认为，它表达了实际情况的顺序。 “By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements

8、 of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.”“二重性指拥有两层结构的这种特性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。”（莱昂斯Lyons, 1982: 20） Does the traffic light system have duality, why? (Ex. 6)No, No discrete units on the first level that can be combined freely in the second

9、 level to form meaning. There is only simple one-one relationship between signs and meaning, namely, red-green-go and yellow-get ready to go or stop. 否。交通信号系统中，底层结构没有独立的单位，无法互相自由结合组成有意义的上层结构。符号和意义之间只存在简单的一对一的关系，即，红-停止，绿-通行，黄-准备通行或停止。  Displacement means that human language enable their users to

10、 symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. 移位指人类语言可以让使用者来表示在说话时（时间和处所）并不存在的物体、事件和观点。 Function: the use of language to communicate, to think ,etc. Language functions include informative function, interpersonal function, perfo

11、rmative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function. 功能：利用语言来交流，思考等。语言功能包括：信息功能，人际功能，施为功能，感情功能，交感性谈话，娱乐性功能和元语言功能。 Phatic communion：It refers to the social interaction of language. 交感性谈话：指的是语言的社会交互性。 Metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic

12、signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.元语言：为分析和描述某种特别研究的语言学符号和术语。 Macrolinguistics: the interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnograph, science of law and artificial intelligence etc. Branches of macro

13、linguistics include psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, etc.宏观语言学：语言和与语言相关的学科（如心理学、社会学、人种学、法学和人工智能等）的相互交叉研究。宏观语言学的分支包括：心理语言学，社会语言学、人类语言学等等。  Descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described. 描写式：一种描述事情是怎样的语言学研究方法。 Prescriptive: a kind

14、 of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. laying down rules for language use. 规定式：一种规定事情应该是怎样的语言学研究方法。例如，规定语言使用的规则。 Synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most gramma

15、rs are of this kind. 共时：一种以一个固定的时间（通常，但非必须，是现在）为它的观察角度的描写。 Diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history.历时：在语言的历史过程中研究语言。 langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.语言：说话者的语言能力。 parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).言语：语

16、言的实际现象或语料 Competence: A language users underlying knowledge about the system of rules.语言能力：一个语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解 Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation. 语言应用：在具体场景中语言的真实使用。 There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal la

17、nguage users. Can you think of some of them? 有很多理由可以解释正常的语言使用者语言能力和语言运用之间的差异。你能想出一些来吗？(Ex. 13)Ethnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, physical state changes within the indicidual, such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness.种族背景，社会经济地位，所处国家地区，以及个体的生理状况的变化，如迷醉，疲劳，分心，疾病

18、等。 Etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pikes distinction of phonetics and phonemics. Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviorally inconsequential, differentiations, just as was often the case with phonetic vs. phonemic analysis in linguist

19、ics proper. 非位的：来自于美国语言学家派克对与语音学和音位学的区分的一个术语，与位学的相对。非位的即在实践中弄出来过多的不重要的区别，严格的语言学中有关语音和音位的分析就是这样的例子。 Emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pikes distinction of phonetics and phonemics. An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as mean

20、ingful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigators ingenuith or intuition alone. 位学的：来自于美国语言学家派克对与语音学和音位学的区分的一个术语，与非位的相对。言语行为和事件中的位学系统必须是有效而有意义的，是通过言语社会中的本族语者而不仅仅是调查者的聪明和直觉获得的。Chapter 2 Speech Sounds语音 Articulatory phoneticsthe study of

21、production of speech sounds.发音语音学：研究语音的产生。 Acoustic phoneticsthe study of the physical properties of speech sounds.声学语音学：研究语音的物理特征。 Auditory phoneticsconcerned with the perceptive mechanism of speech sounds.听觉语音学：和语音感知有关。 What organs are involved in speech production?(Ex. 2.1)The speech organs

22、include: lungs, trachea, throat, nose, and the mouth. 言语器官包括：肺，气管，喉，鼻和口。 Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords. 浊音音质：通过震动声带发出声音（通常是元音或浊辅音） How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels? (Ex. 2.2)辅音的描写和元音的描写有哪些

23、不同？ Consonants: Consonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.辅音：声道的部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻挡，由此产生辅音。 The most important factors which categories of consonant based:辅音分类

24、的最重要因素 Manners of articulation 发音方法   The actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract. 发音器官之间的关系，以及气流经过声道的某些部位时的方式。 Places of articulation 发音部位   Where in the vocal tract there is approximation, na

25、rrowing, or the obstruction of air. 声道的哪些部位发生气流的摩擦、狭窄化或阻碍。 eg. p voiceless bilabial stop 双唇清塞音   b voiced bilabial stop双唇浊塞音   s voiceless alveolar fricative齿龈清擦音   z voiced alveolar fricative齿龈浊擦音 Vowel: sounds that are produced without air obstruction, no tr

26、ubulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived. 元音：气流不受阻碍，没有气流的紊乱或停滞现象的发音叫元音。 To summarize, the description of these vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements: 总结：描写这些元音必须满足四个基本要求：The height of tongue raising (high, mid, low);舌头抬起的高度（高、中、低）The position of the highest part o

27、f the tongue (front, central, back);舌头最高部分的位置（前、央、后）The length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short), and  元音的长度或强度（紧松或长短）Lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).唇的圆展（圆唇不圆唇） Ways of describing the vowels:描述元音的方法i: high front tense unrounded vowel高前紧不圆唇元音J high back lax r

28、ounded vowel高后松圆唇元音 central lax unrounded vowel央松不圆唇元音? low back lax rounded vowel低后松圆唇元音 Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved. Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticu

29、lation.协同发音：一种涉及到同时或重合发音的语音过程。协同发音可以分为逆化协同发音和重复性协同发音。 Broad transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription 宽式标音：用一套简单的符号记音Narrow transcription：the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail   严式标音：用复杂的符号来精确地表示语音 To what extent is phonology related to

30、 phonetics and how do they differ?(Ex. 2.3)  音系学语音学有哪些联系又有哪些区别？More details about the differences between phonetics and phonology 语音学和音系学更具体的不同点Phonetics studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received. Phonology, on the other hand, is they study of the sound systems of languages.

31、语音学研究语音如何被制造、传递和接受。而音系学研究的是语言的语音系统。 Phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.音系学涉及的是人类语言中语音的语言学模式，它的主要目的是去发

32、现语言中语音的组成规则，并解释发生的变化。 Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. 语音学研究所有可能的语音，而音系学研究的是说话人为表达意义而系统地选择语音的方法。 phoneme: simply refers to a “unit of exp

33、licit sound contrast” 音位：是“外在的语音对立单位” Allophone：any of the different forms of a same phoneme. 音位变体：同一个音素的任何不同形式。 peak-pi:k and unaspirated in speak-sp i:k. What is assimilation?(Ex. 2.4) Assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighbouring s

34、ound. It includes nasalization, dentalization and velarization.同化：指一个音具有了邻音的一部分或者全部特征这一过程。 包括鼻化、齿化和腭化。 Regressive assimilation and progressive assimilation 逆同化和顺同化If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation; the converse process, in which a precedin

35、g sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation. 如果后面的音影响前面的音，我们称为“逆同化”；相反的过程，我们称为“顺同化”。 Distinctive features: a term of phonology, i.e. a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.区别特征：音系学中的一个术语，即一个音位区别与另一个音位的特性。 Suprasegmental: aspects of speech

36、 that involve more than single sound segments. The principle suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.超音段:涉及了比单个音段更多东西的语音方面,主要的超音段概念有音节、重音、声调和语调。Chapter 3 Lexicon词汇 ”A free form which consists entirely of two or more lesser free forms is a phrase. A free form which is not a

37、 phrase is a word. A word, then, is a minimum free form”(Bloomfield, 1935: 178). Answer the following questions“完全由两个或更多的较小形式构成的自由形式是词组。不是词组的自由形式是词。那么，词 是最小的自由形式。”（布龙菲尔德，1935：178）回答下面的问题：(Ex. 5)(a) The term “word” is ambiguous. What kind of words is Bloomfields definition intended to cover?“词”这个术语是有

38、歧义的。布龙菲尔德的定义想要涵盖哪一种词？(b) Are there any traditionally recognized words of English (in the appropriate sense of “word”) that fail to satisfy Bloomfields definition?英语中有没有传统认为是词（在“词”的合适意义上）却不能满足布龙菲尔德定义的词？(c) What other criteria have been involved in the definition of the word?词的定义中还用到了哪些其他的标准？(a) Bloom

39、field treated such items as book, books, or do, does, did, done, not as the same words in different forms, but as different words. But on the other hand, he also claimed that Johns in Johns hat should be regarded as one word. At the same time, the boys (hat) is also just one word. From here, one can

40、 see that Bloomfields definition of word intended to cover different linguistic units with the same criterion. 布龙菲尔德想把book，books，或者do,does，did，done这样的词处理成同一个词的不同形式，而不是看作不同的词。但另一方面，他又主张把Johns hat中的Johns当作一个词。同样the boys (hat)也只是一个词。由此我们可以看出布龙菲尔德对词的定义，是想要用同样的标准来涵盖不同的语言单位。(b)The traditionally recognized

41、 words such as the grammatical articles a and the are different words from their modifying head, but Bloomfield thought differently, as was evidenced in (a). 像a和the这样的语法冠词，传统认为是跟所修饰的中心语不同的词。但是布龙菲尔德不这样看，具体观点参看(a)。(c) Consequently, grammatical criterion was taken into account while defining the scope

42、of word. For example, Bloomfield treated the constituent the king of Englands or the man I saw yesterdays serving as a premodifer as independent long word. In fact, this type of modifier is rank-shifted phrases, not words at all. 因此，在定义词的范围时，还考虑了语法标准。例如，the king of Englands或者the man I saw yesterday这

43、样一些用作前修饰语的成分，布龙菲尔德把它们作为独立的长词处理。其实这种修饰语，是降级短语，根本就不是词。 Grammatical words(also function words): express grammatical meanings and serve to link its different parts together.语法词（功能词）：表达语法意义，及用来把不同的片段连接在一起。 eg. conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, etc. Lexical words(also cont

44、ent words): have lexical meanings, refer to substance, action and quality and carry the main content of a language. 词汇词（实义词）：具有词汇意义（指物质、动作和性质），承载了语言的主要内容。eg. nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, etc.  Lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and pr

45、ovided with semantic interpretation. 词汇：某种语言中按不同词类排列的具有语义解释功能的一系列词。  Closed-class words: those whose membership is fixed or limited. 封闭类词：其成员数目是固定的，有限的。eg. pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. Open-class words: those whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.&#

46、160; 开放类词：其成员数目原则上是无穷的，无限的。  eg. nouns, verbs, adjectives, and many adverbs, etc.      Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically al

47、tering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. 语素:是最小的语言单位,不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变词汇意义或语法意义。 MORPHEME is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical concept or a semantic one? What is its relation to phoneme? Can

48、 a morpheme and a phoneme form an organic whole?语素被定义为表达和内容关系的最小单位。那么语素是语法概念还是语义概念？它跟音位是什么关系？语素和音位能够构成 一个有机整体吗？(Ex. 3)Since morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, it at the same time covers the grammatical and the semantic aspect of linguist

49、ic unit. A morpheme may overlap with a phoneme, such as I, but usually not, as in pig, in which the morpheme is the whole word, i.e. an independent, free morpheme, but the phonemes are /p/, /I/, and /.既然把语素定义为表达和内容关系的最小单位，那么它同时涉及了语言单位的语法方面和语义方面。一个语素可能就是一个音位，如I（我）；但是一个语素通常不是一个单位，如pig（猪），整个单词是一个语素，也就是

50、说pig是个独立的自由语素，但是音位是/p/，/I/和/。 Free morpheme: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes. 自由语素：能单独出现也就是能独立成词的，是自由语素。 Bound morpheme: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme, are bound morphemes. 粘着语素：不能单独出现，它们必须跟至少

51、一个其他语素共现的，是粘着语素。 Root: the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. All words contain a root morpheme. 词根：词的基本形式，不能再作进一步的分析而完全不损失同一性。所有的词都包含一个词根语素。 Affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another mo

52、rpheme( the root or stem). 词缀：一个构成成分的集合，它们只能附加于另一个语素（词根或词干）上。 Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. 词干：指能加上屈折词缀的语素或语素的组合。 Inflection: Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affi

53、xes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case. 屈折变化是通过附加屈折词缀的语法关系的表现，如数、人称、有定性、体和格。 Compound: It refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce s single form. 复合词：指那些由一个以上的词汇语素构成的词，或者由两个独立的词连接起来构成新的形式。 Deriv

54、ation：Different from compounds, derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes. 派生词：跟复合词不同，派生词则能表明词根和词缀之间的关系。 Allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme.语素变体：语素的任何不同形式。  Blending混成法 (fusion溶合法)eg. smoke+fog smog      digital+computer digicom(数码计算机)

55、  Acronym 缩略语eg. EEC European Economic Community（欧洲经济共同体） Back-formation: refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix form a longer form already in the language. It also allows us to take a word of a given category and form a n

56、ew homophonous word of a different category. 逆构词法：是构词法中一种不规则的类型，即把一个语言中阴茎存在的较长单词删去想象中的词缀，由此造出一个较短的单词。它还允许我们拿一个已定词类的单词，造出一个同音异义且不同类的词。eg. editor(编辑，编者) edit(编辑，校订)  （删去想象中的词缀）   Whitewash(石灰水) whitewash(用石灰水把刷白)  (作为其他词性的词用) Loanwords: The borrowing of loanwords is a process

57、in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, in some cases, to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.  借词：借词的形式和意义都是借用的，有时为了适应新语言的音位系统，可以有些小的改变。）eg. encore(原为法语)   tea(原为汉语) Loanblend: is a process in which part of the form is n

58、ative and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.混合借词：就是借词的一部分来自本国语，另一部分来自外来语，但意义全都是借来的。eg. coconut  Chinatown (划线部分借自西班牙和汉语，非划线部分源于英语本身) Loanshift：is a process in which that meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. 转移借词：意义是借用的，但是形式是来自本国语。eg. bridge (本来就是英语单词，表“桥”，但指“桥牌”时，

59、借用了意大利语的ponte) Loss 脱落The loss of sound: refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. It may also occur in utterances at the expense of some unstressed vowels. 语音脱落：可以指音位系统中作为因为的某个语音的消失。语音脱落也可以在语句中发生，往往是某些非重读元音发生脱落。 Assimilation: refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation. 同化：指由于邻近语音的影响而产生的语音变化，更明确的叫法是“接触”同化或“邻近”同化。eg. 否定前缀