水利水电工程专业英语——水利工程施工篇

1、水利水电工程专业英语水利工程施工篇1. Concrete-Faced Rockfill Dams Plinth Construction1. 混凝土面板堆石坝的趾板施工Essentially two types of plinth geometry have been used by the Commission namely: (1) with the apron made horizontal in a direction normal to the plinth line; (2) with the apron made horizontal in a direction normal

2、to the dam axis. Following Cethana, plinths of the second type have been adopted to minimize excavation, especially in deep terrain. However, the gains thus achieved have not been without some compensating losses. Very awkward apron surfaces result, which do not facilitate a highly mechanized approa

3、ch to the later operations of forming, concreting, drilling and grouting. In the Commissions situation this has reduced their appeal to the point where reverting to the original design is being seriously considered.委员会中应用了两种基本类型的趾板几何形状，即：（1）带有与趾板线垂直的水平型护坦；（2）带有与坝轴线垂直的水平型护坦。下面的塞沙那坝中，应用了第二种类型以尽量减少开挖，特

4、别是在深层地形中。然而，这样取得的成就并非没有一些补偿损失。很尴尬的护坦表面导致了混凝土浇筑、钻孔和灌浆，而这不利于一个高度机械化的方法随后的立模操作。从委员会的处境来说，这已经将它们的应用降低到了开始认真考虑恢复原始设计的那点。At Cethana the plinth was constructed from the rockfill as the dam was raised. Subsequently this procedure has been avoided because of the programme restraints it imposes. In relatively

5、 narrow valleys with working space limited, where climatic conditions can affect the rate of progress and where an unforeseen foundation problem can have a major influence on programme we have thought it desirable to provide access from upstream.在塞沙那坝中趾板是随着大坝的抬升而用堆石修建。由于它所施加的程序限制，随后这个过程被避免使用。在工作空间有限

6、的相对狭窄河谷，在那里气候条件能够影响进度速率且一个不可预见的基础问题可能对计划有重大的影响，我们认为这须要从上游提供入口。1.1 Plinth excavation1.1趾板开挖Where road access is available or where abutments are no steeper than approximately 30 degrees, excavation is typically done with tracked earthmoving equipment, especially hydraulic excavators. Where drilling a

7、nd blasting is necessary, crawler mounted percussion drills both pneumatic and hydraulic, are used. The use of explosives must be carefully controlled if damage to the plinth foundation is to be avoided.在有道路入口或坝肩不陡于30度的地方，挖掘的典型做法是使用轨道土方开挖设备，特别是液压挖掘机。在必须钻井和爆破的地方，要使用气动或液压式履带式冲击钻机。如果要避免对趾板基础的损害，就必须严格控制

8、爆破的使用。In steeper sections methods are limited to manual labour with jackhammers, shovels and picks, and where possible small crane handled hydraulic excavators (mass 5 tonne).在较深的地方方法被限定为用手提钻、铁锹和镐的手工劳力，在可能的地方可用到小型吊车操纵的液压挖掘机（质量5吨）。Final cleanup is usually to a standard such that the surface directly

9、under the plinth is entirely free of dirt or loose material. For a distance of 3 meters downstream of the plinth the surface is normally scraped using a small hydraulic excavator with a smooth edge bucket. Faults and joints are chased out usually to a depth equal to their width and then backfilled w

10、ith concrete. Where joints extend through the plinth, this treatment is continued to the point where the joint is closed. Such features are then covered with filter material during rockplacing. Geological mapping is carried out after cleanup and final assessment is then made of any adjustments to th

11、e position or increase in the number of consolidation grout holes thought desirable.最后的清理要达到趾板下表面要完全没有污垢或松散材料的标准。在趾板表面下游3米远的地方通常用带有光滑边缘挖斗的液压挖掘机刮平。断层和接缝通常被挖成与其宽度相等的深度，并用混凝土回填。在接缝延伸贯穿趾板的地方，这种处理要延续到接缝闭合的地方。这种特性随后在堆石过程中用过滤材料覆盖。清理后开展测绘，随后根据位置进行最终评估的任意调整或增加认为可取的固结灌浆孔数量。Compressed air with some water intro

12、duced at the nozzle is the preferred tool for cleanup although in some instances a very high pressure water cleaner has been used to good advantage.尽管在一些情况下非常高的高压水清洁器已有很好的应用优势，但在喷嘴处引入一些水的压缩空气是清理的优选的工具。1.2 Plinth concrete1.2趾板混凝土Because plinths tend to produce apron surfaces with a severe crossfall (

13、in addition to the normal slope), winch-controlled mobile equipment is not generally a practical proposition. Consequently manual and crane based techniques have predominated.因为趾板往往产生有严重横坡的护坦表面（在正常坡度之外），因此实践中一般不建议使用绞车控制的移动设备。由此以基于技术的手工和起重机方法为主。Typically dowelling (where out of reach of track drills)

14、 is done with jackhammers, while boxing is a mix of crane handled steel forms (especially the ”apex” of the plinth which contains the waterstops), crane handled “soldier” assemblies to support apron shuttering, and built in place timber. Reinforcement is tied in place and concrete usually delivered

15、by crane and bucket.典型的用销接合（轨道钻不能到达的地方）使用手工钻完成，而立模是起重机控制钢模板的组合（尤其是其中包含了止水带的趾板的“顶点”），起重机控制“士兵”组件以支撑护坦模板，以及就位安装木材。就位捆绑钢筋并通常用起重机和铲斗输送混凝土。For the earlier dams copper was the material preferred for the primary waterstop, with oxy-acetylene brazing used for jointing, and extruded natural rubber was used f

16、or the secondary waterstop. However, for the Pieman Development, stainless in a “W” shape and continuous moulded Hypalon rubber were substituted. From the construction viewpoint these are both excellent materials. Stainless steel in the profile used is very rigid but still light enough to manhandle

17、in 10 meter lengths. Two steps were used in the jointing process but neither step is difficult to do in the field. The first step is to achieve close contact between the parts by using a spot welder after which the lap is sealed using a portable TIG welder. The Hypalon is readily jointed by vulcanis

18、ing.对于早期大坝紫铜是优选的主止水材料，使用氧炔铜焊焊接，挤制的天然橡胶被用于次止水。然而，对于皮艾曼坝，“W”形的不锈钢和连续性聚乙烯合成橡胶模制被取代。从施工角度这些都是优质材料。型材中不锈钢的应用非常严格，但是仍然足够轻可以人工操作10米长的钢筋。焊接过程中用到了两步，但是两者都很难在现场进行。第一步是在用便携式TIG焊机密封交合处之后，用点焊机实现部件之间的紧密接合。聚乙烯合成橡胶通过硫化很容易接合。2. Details of Several Diversion Tunnels2. 一些导流洞的详细信息The initial diameters of the diversion t

19、unnels of the Prangana, Cethana and Devils Gate schemes were different when chosen independently. However, after further design study and adjustment of tunnel and coffer dam levels, overall total economy was obtained by adopting a lined diameter of 6.6m for the three tunnels.普兰加纳坝、塞沙那坝和德威尔斯坝的闸门方案的导流

20、洞初始直径在独立选择时是不同的。然而，在对导流洞和围堰进一步的设计研究，三个导流洞采用6米的内径可以获得全局经济性。The diameters of the diversion tunnels of the Wilmot and Paloona schemes were different when chosen independently. Again, adjustment of tunnel and coffer dam levels made it reasonable to adopt a lined diameter of 4.4m for the both tunnels.威尔莫

21、特和帕劳莫导流洞直径选择方案在独立选择时是不同的。再次，导流洞和围堰的调整使得两个导流洞采用4.4米内径合理可行。For the 6.6m diameter tunnels, short inlet transitions were provided which were identical in hydraulic shape and which could be sealed by a gate 6.9m high by 7.3m wide. With water at upstream coffer dam crest level, invert and side transitions

22、 behaved well hydraulically and water just reached to the inlet crown. For the 4.4m diameter tunnels, short circular bellmouth transitions were provided which could also be sealed by a gate 6.9m high by 7.3m wide. With water at upstream coffer dam crest level, the inlets were drowned and behaved wel

23、l hydraulically.对于6.6米直径的隧洞提供了短进口过渡段，它们水力形状相同且可以用一个6.9米高、7.3米宽的闸门封堵。当水位达到上游围堰堰顶高度时，管道内底和侧面过渡段水力运行条件且水刚达到进口顶冠处。对于4.4米直径的隧洞，提供了短圆状喇叭口形过渡段且可以用一个6.9米高、7.3米宽的闸门封堵。当水位达到上游围堰堰顶高度时，这个进口被淹没且水力运行条件良好。The shape and load conditions of the large inlet transitions were such that little steel reinforcement was req

24、uired. Classical and finite element analysis showed that the structures would be safe provided circular shells could be inscribed wholly within the concrete and normal to the transition axis, with average stresses about 50% of those acceptable in a circular conduit. The Cethana inlet transition was

25、provided with nominal reinforcement in the vicinity of embedded parts, a single, sensibly horizontal mat of crown reinforcement to permit early removal of formwork. Two horizontal stressing cables were provided to combat the tendency of the gate reaction friction loads to spread the vertical embedde

26、d bearing plates apart as the tension chord of the gate stretched under load.大进口过渡段的形状和负荷条件几乎不需要钢筋。经典分析和有限元分析结果表明，倘若圆形外壳在混凝土内可以完全内接并与过渡段轴线相垂直，在圆形管道中平均应力约为允许值的50%时，结构将会安全稳定。塞沙那坝进口渐变段在预埋件附近提供了标称钢筋，即一个单一的、合理的顶端加固水平（钢筋）网，以允许尽早移除模板。分别设置了两个水平应力缆索，以应对闸门拉弦杆在负荷下拉伸时闸门反应摩擦负荷将垂直预埋承压板分开的趋势。It was expedient to pl

27、ace more concrete in the Cehtana intake than was necessary for structural reasons.在塞沙那坝进水口处放置比结构性因素需求更多的钢筋是有利的。The shape and load conditions of the circular bellmouth transitions to the smaller tunnels were also such that little reinforcement was required.向较小管道的圆形喇叭孔过渡段的形状和负荷条件也是如此，需要较少的钢筋。It was de

28、cided to omit log racks at the inlets but, to minimize the tendency of big trees and other debris to lodge in the gate slots of the large transitions, they were temporarily filled with concrete blocks held by bolts designed to resist the high loads due to pressure difference caused by the high veloc

29、ity head, in the vicinity of the concrete blocks. The blocks were removed immediately prior to diversion closure. Timber was used for similar protection of circular bellmouth transitions. During a flood in August, 1969, the Cethana inlet was submerged 46m. Debris, including trees up to 30m in length

30、 and 1m in diameter covered a large area in the vicinity of the inlet. The trees were carried down to the tunnel by a vortex which persisted when the submergence was less than about 15m but there was no blockage. The inlet was hardly marked but the large trees were torn apart as they entered the tun

31、nel through the inlet.本可减少进口处的圆木震动，但为尽量减小大树和其它碎片在大过渡段闸门槽处内的积聚趋势，它们暂时被用螺栓固定的混凝土块填充，该螺栓在混凝土块附近，被设计为抵抗因高流速水头引起的压力差所产生的高负荷。该混凝土块在导流封堵前夕被立即移除。木材被用于圆形喇叭口过渡处类似的保护。在1969年8月的一场洪水中，塞沙那坝进水口被淹没了46米。包括长达30米直径1米的树木在内的垃圾覆盖了进水口附近的一大片区域。树木被一个淹没约少于15米时仍持续的漩涡携带到了隧洞处，但是那里并没有堵塞。进口几乎没有印记，但是大树在通过进口进入隧洞后被撕裂。Because the req

32、uirements for the diversion tunnel of the Scotts Peak Dam of the Gordon River Power Development were similar to those of the Wilmot Dam diversion tunnel, a 4.4m diameter diversion tunnel was chosen and was provided with a bellmouth transition to be sealed by a gate 6.9m high by 7.3m wide. It was als

33、o convenient to provide a bellmouth entrance to the second stage diversion conduit at the base of Gordon River Dam and to have this sealed by a gate of the same size.由于戈登河电力开发的斯科特峰大坝导流隧洞的要求与威尔莫特大坝导流洞相似，所以选择了一个直径4.4米的导流隧洞并配有一个喇叭口状过渡段，并用一个6.9米高、7.3米宽的闸门封堵。戈登河大坝基础处的第二阶段导流提供一个喇叭口状进口并用同样尺寸的闸门封堵，这也很方便。3.

34、The Basic Mechanisms in Homogeneous Rock Blasting3. 均质岩体爆破的基本机制When the charge detonates in the borehole, the detonation wave will propagate along the hole with the velocity of 2000 to 7000 m/sec, or more normally between 4000 and 6000m/sec. At the front of the detonation wave, the pressure is betwe

35、en 5 and 5000 kbar, or more normally about 200 kbar for a hole filled with a high explosive. If the borehole is packed full of the explosive, a pressure about half the front pressure will initially act on the borehole wall due to the acceleration of the wall. If the charge does not fill out the hole

36、, the gas will expand radially and upon reaching the wall will exert a much smaller pressure. In either case the pressure will propagate out from the borehole into the rock as a shock wave with a conical front coaxial with the hole. As a consequence of the simultaneous axial and radial expansion of

37、the reaction products, the wall pressure will initially drop quite quickly, so that the front cone angle, determined by the relative magnitudes of shock and detonation velocity, will therefore decrease with increasing radius because of the gradually decreasing front pressure.在岩石钻孔爆破过程中，炮孔中药卷由雷管激发起爆，

38、爆轰波沿着炮孔方向由起爆点以20007000m/s的速度向未爆部分传播，爆轰波速通常为40006000m/s。在波阵面正面，爆轰波产生5500 kbar的压力，采用高能炸药爆破条件下，其正面压强通常为200千巴左右。耦合装药条件下，爆生高温高压气体一经产生立刻作用在炮孔壁上，由于炮孔边壁在冲击波作用下产生加速度，因此作用在壁面的压强值只有冲击波正面压强值的一半左右。若采用不耦合装药，爆生气体在到达孔壁之前有一个在空腔内向外放射形扩散的过程，因此冲击波作用到孔壁的压强大幅度衰减。无论采用何种装药结构，爆炸产生的应力波均以与炮孔同轴的圆锥形波阵面形式，从炮孔向孔周边岩石中扩散传播。由于爆生气体沿炮

39、孔轴向和径向的迅速膨胀，作用在壁面上的压强在达到峰值之后随即迅速回落。随着冲击波由炮孔向外传播，其正面压强逐渐减小，波阵面的圆锥锥角（取决于冲击波的相对幅值和波速）亦随之逐渐减小。Due to the radial outflow of material accompanying the shock wave, the tangential pressure will decrease more rapidly than the radial and axial pressures and will ultimately cause radial cracks to appear. Up to

40、 that time, the material between the borehole and the shock front is compressed and deforms elastically or plastically depending on the pressure and the strength of the rock. In experiments of blasting in plexiglass, we observe the expanding borehole and the shock front with the material between the

41、m still completely transparent. At a certain distance behind the detonation front, the material becomes opaque because of the radial cracks. These do not initiate at the borehole wall but at a point one or two hole radii further out, and then propagate radially outwards. These do not initiate at the

42、 borehole wall but at a point one or two hole radii further out, and then propagate radially outwards. This view is also supported by computer calculations, which indicate that the tangential stress reaches the tensile fracture value somewhere in the same region while it is still positive at the hol

43、e wall and further out. Poncelet (1961) pointed out the possibility of different types of fracture in different radial regions in the rock outside the borehole wall.岩体在爆炸冲击波作用下产生径向的流动，使得其切向拉应力较之径向和轴向迅速的增大，最终诱发径向裂缝的产生。在裂缝形成之前，炮孔和冲击波阵面之间区域内的岩石材料一直处于压缩状态，并视其应力水平和岩石强度发生弹性或者塑性的变形。在树脂玻璃材料中的钻孔爆炸试验表明：炮孔在爆炸冲

44、击波作用下发生了扩张变形，冲击波向外传播过程中波阵面与炮孔之间的材料保持全透明而并无裂缝产生。只有在爆轰波传递经过一段距离之后，树脂材料中才产生径向裂纹而变得不透明。这些裂纹并非从孔壁开始产生，而是在离孔壁12倍孔半径处开始发育，然后向外扩散。电脑计算结果也支持这一观点，当靠近和远离孔壁的区域切向均为压力时，在上述裂纹产生的区域却出现了达到拉伸断裂临界值的拉应力。Poncelet (1961)提出对于离孔壁不同距离区域，可能存在着不同类型的裂纹发育机制。As the shock wave velocity of rock is of the order of 4000-5000 m/sec,

45、the radial crack length by the time the shock wave reaches the free surface parallel to the borehole is less than 25% of the distance3 to the free surface. The compressive shock wave is then reflected as a tensile wave. If the charge weight per unit length of borehole and unit length of burden squar

46、ed is of the order of 5kg/m3 or more the tensile wave in granite4 is strong enough to cause scabbing fractures. The fracture surfaces are then parallel to the free surface. Smaller charge weights, such as 0.5 to 1 5kg/m3, which are normal in bench blasting, do not cause such fractures in granite.爆炸产

47、生的冲击波在岩石中以40005000m/s的速度传播，当波到达平行于炮孔方向的岩石临空面时，所产生的径向裂缝长度还不到抵抗线长度的25%。然后压缩波在临空面发生反射，反射波为拉伸波。对于花岗岩中的钻孔爆破，当装药量足够大（药量除以炮孔长度和最小抵抗线平方之后的值大于5kg/m3）时，其所产生的反射拉伸波的强度足以在岩体中形成平行于自由面方向上的裂缝。然而在台阶爆破中，装药量通常不大（0.51kg/m3），故而无法在花岗岩中形成此种裂缝。The experiment of Field and Ladegaard-Pedersen (1968) showed the importance of t

48、he interaction between the expanding radial crack system and the reflected tensile wave. The interaction gives to those cracks a greater propagation velocity which are nearly parallel to the wave front, i.e. those traveling in directions at an angle of 40 to 80 degrees to the normal of the free surf

49、ace. These cracks travel ahead of other cracks and by relaxation of the surrounding material reduce further the velocity of neighboring cracks. We believe that this mechanism is responsible for the final break-out angle.Field和Ladegaard-Pedersen (1968)的实验则说明了径向裂纹扩展过程与反射拉伸波相互耦合的重要性。耦合作用加快了裂缝在近似平行于波阵面方

50、向（与临空面法线交角4080度）上的扩展。这些裂纹在其他裂纹之前发育形成，并使得裂纹周边材料松弛从而进一步减慢了其他裂纹的发育扩展过程。我们认为这就是最终所形成的破碎角的原理。In the meantime, another mechanism has come into play. The longest cracks have extended inwards and reached the borehole wall. This is supported by two observations. Firstly, in plexiglass experiments, reaction p

51、roduct gases are seen to emerge from cracks reaching the free surface at an early stage of the process. Secondly, when an explosive with an excess of carbon in the reaction products is used, carbon is deposited on the surface of the largest cracks near to the borehole (within a distance of about 10

52、to 20 hole radii from the hole). As seen from our calculation an appreciable gas pressure still remains in the borehole. This may be of the order 1 to 5 kbar in a fully packed borehole. This pressure will now extend into the cracks. The gas flow velocity into the cracks may or may not be sufficientl

53、y high for the gas to reach out to the crack tip. The flow in the narrow crack is associated with an appreciable pressure and heat loss and is initially not very much greater than the crack velocity. Even if the gas pressure in the crack thus decreases rapidly outwards, the lever or wedge effect of

54、the large gas pressure on the crack surface nearer to the borehole will make an appreciable contribution to the tension at the crack tip. 而与此同时，还有另外一个力学过程正在发生：最长的裂纹不断向内扩展最终贯穿炮孔壁面。在实验中观测到了两个与之相关的现象：首先，在树脂玻璃爆炸试验中，裂纹扩展过程的早期阶段，有爆生气体从裂缝中溢出；其次，当采用爆炸能够产生大量碳粉的特质炸药进行试验时，所产生的碳粉仅留存于距离炮孔距离小于1020倍孔径区域内的最发育的裂缝之中。

55、计算结果显示，当裂纹扩展至孔壁的时候，炮孔中仍然具有相当压强的爆生气体。耦合装药条件下，这些气体压强能达到15 kbar。这些残留的气体向贯穿孔壁的裂缝中高速流动，流速较快的气体可能会一直冲击到裂纹的最尖端。在微小的裂隙中，气流流动过程中压强和热量剧烈损耗，使得裂纹中的气压沿径向迅速的不断衰减，且气体初流速与裂纹扩展速度较为接近。即使如此，作用在在炮孔壁面附近裂纹之中的高压气体以及它所带来的气楔效应也会明显增大裂缝尖端的张力水平。4. The Diversion of Rivers in Dam Construction4. 大坝施工时的河流导流The idea of diverting th

56、e river for the construction of the dam clearly has important influence on the time required for completion and is also of great economic importance to the cost of the project, so therefore it is a subject well worth investigating in detail. It is not easy to lay down definite rules on this problem,

57、 since the diversion of the river is always subject to basic data which one cannot easily fit into a standard pattern, such as the flow of the river and the characteristics of the terrain. Nevertheless, we shall attempt to put forward the conclusions we have reached after having taken part in the di

58、version of a large number of rivers, and it is our hope that these conclusions may be of some use for similar cases, i.e. for the diversion of rivers medium size. In our opinion a doctrine could be built on the following principles:在大坝建设时将河流导流的思路很明显对完工所需要的时间有着重要的影响，同事也对工程造价有着重大的经济影响，因此这是一个很值得详细调研的题目

59、。对该问题确定一定之规并不容易，因为河流的导流宗师收到不能轻易地适用于标准模式的基础数据的影响，比如河流的水流和地形的特点。尽管如此，我们还是应该试着提出在我们参与了众多数量河流的导流后所得到的结论，并且我们希望这些结论能够对类似的情况有所帮助，比如对中型河流的导流。在我们看来，一个理论可以建立在以下原则之上：1) The diversion flow should depend on the problems that would arise should there occur an overflow over the dam itself during the construction period.These problem can arise from the erosionability of the materials of the dam (earth dam) or of the foundations (weak foundations).Subject t