英语语言学期末考试重点

1、I.Whatislanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication2.DesignfeaturesoflanguageArbitrariness（任意性）referstotheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.（soundsandmeanings）Duality（二层性）:Thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylev

2、elarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.Productivity/creativity（创造性）:Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Displacement移位性）:HumanLanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandcon

3、ceptswhicharenotpresent（intimeandspace）atmomentofcommunication.（p7）3.FunctionsoflanguageInformative（信息功能）：togiveinformationaboutfacts.（ideational）Interpersonal（人际功能）：toestablishandmaintainsocialstatusinasociety.（age,sex,language,background,accent,status）Performative（施为功能）:languageisusedtodothings,to

4、performcertainactions.（name,promise,apologize,sorry,declare）.Emotive/Expressive（情感功能）：toexpressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.Phaticcommunion（寒暄交流）:tousesmallandmeaninglessexpressionstoestablishacomfortablerelationshipormaintainsocialcontactbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.（health,weather）Rec

5、reationalfunction（娱乐）：theuseoflanguageforsheerjoy.（lyrics,poetry）CDMetalingualfunction（元语言功能）：totalkaboutlanguageitself.4 .Whatislinguistics?Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.5 .ImportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsDescriptive&prescriptiveSynchronic&diachronicLangue&am

6、p;paroleCompetence&performance6 .Descriptive（描写/述，|4）describeandanalyzelinguisticfactsorthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse（modernlinguistic）Prescriptive（规定性）laydownrulesfor“correctandstandard"linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage（traditionalgrammar:"neveruseadoublenegative"）7 .Synchronicstu

7、dy（共时）descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime（modernlinguistics）Diachronicstudy（历时）descriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime（historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime）第四章1. WhatisSyntax（句法）？Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentences句法就是研究语言的不同

8、成分组成句子的规则2. FourApproaches:Thetraditionalapproach传统语言观(Partsofspeech、SyntacticFunction不考、Category范畴、Concordandgovernment致关系和支配关系卜Thestructuralapproach结构语言观、Thegenerativeapproach>Thefunctionalapproach功能语言观3. Thetraditionalgrammarregardssentencesasasequenceofwords,soitpaysgreatattentiontothestudyof

9、words,suchastheclassificationofwordsintermsofpartsofspeech,theidentificationoffunctionofwordsintermsofsubject,predicate,etc.4. PartsofspeechTraditionalgrammardefines8partsofspeech:nouns,verbs,pronouns,adjectives,adverbsprepositions,conjunctionsandinterjections.5. ThetermCategory范畴insomeapproachesref

10、erstowordclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense范畴这一术语狭义上是指词类和功能eg.Noun,Verb,Subject,Predicate.Morespecifically,itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:thecategoriesofthenoun名词的范畴,includenumber,gender,caseandcountability(case);thecategoriesoftheverb动词的范畴：tense,aspect,voice,etc.6. Numberismost

11、lyacategoryofthenounandpronoun名词和不可数名词Twotermsofnumberinnouns:singularandplural单数和复数Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs7. Genderisalsomostlyacategoryofthenounandpronoun.InEnglish,thegenderdistinctionsareonthewholenatural,determinedbythebiologicalgenderofthecreature.8. Caseisusedi

12、ntheanalysisofwordclassestoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence在词类分析中，格范畴用来辨别句子中词之间的句法关系InEnglish,pronounshavethreecasesofnominative主格,accusative受格,andgenitive与格.Nounshavetwoofgeneralandgenitive所有格InEnglish,thecaseofnounisrealizedinthreechannels:(a)inflection(b)followingaprepositi

13、on(c)wordorder9. Tense时态：theabsolutelocationofaneventoractionontime.Itismarkedbyaninflectionoftheverb.Asaresult,thereareonlytwotensesrecognizednow:pastandpresent.Sincethefuturetimedoesnotinvolveanyinflectionoftheverb,wedonotrefertoa“futuretense”,eventhoughinmanydifferentwayswecantalkaboutthefuture.1

14、0. Aspect体:Ithasnothingwithtime,andittellsuswhetheranactionisongoingorcompleted.Perfective(完成体)andImperfective(进行体)PerfectiveandProgressive(inEnglish)11. Voice语态：describetherelationshipbetweenverbandsubjectPassive被动语态andactive主动语态12. ConcordandgovernmentConcord(一致关系)referstoagreementbetweenwords,esp

15、eciallybetweenaverbandthesubjectofasentence.(2)Government(支配关系)isatypeofgrammaticalrelationshipbetweentwoormoreelementsinasentence.Intraditionalgrammar,thetermgovernmenthastypicallybeenusedtorefertotherelationshipbetweenverbsandnounsorbetweenprepositionsandnouns.13.TheStructuralApproach,由Ferdinandde

16、Saussure提出14.SyntacticRelations:Positionalrelations位置关系、Relationsofsubstitutability替代关系、Relationsofco-occurrence同现关系15.Immediateconstituent（直接成分）isanymeaningfulconstituentatthefirststepinananalysis.16 .Anendocentricconstruction（向心结构）isaconstructionthatcontains:1） ahead,whichisthesingleobligatoryelem

17、entintheconstruction;2） oneormoreoptionalelementssubordinatetothehead.17 .theme（主位）referstotheknowninformationwhichisnotnewtothereaderorlistenerRheme（述位）referstotheinformationthatisnew.ThenewinformationiswhatistobetransmittedtothereaderorlistenerThelinguistsofthePragueschoolbelievedthatsentencemaybe

18、analyzedfromthefunctionalsideaswellasthegrammaticalside.subject,predicate（grammaticalside）theme,rheme（functionalside）第五章1. WhatisSemantics?Semanticsisthestudyofthemeaningofwords,phrasesandsentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2. GeoffreyLeech禾U奇Seventypesofmeaning7种意义类型Conceptualmeaning概念意义Connotativemeanin

19、g内涵意义Socialmeaning社会意义Associative Meaning 联想意义（）Affectivemeaning感情意义Reflectedmeaning反射意义Collocativemeaning搭配意义Thematicmeaning主位意义3 .Conceptualmeaning（概念意义）isalsocalled“denotative"（夕卜延义）anditisconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitrefersto.概念意义也叫夕卜延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系Conceptualmea

20、ningismeaninggiveninthedictionary.4 .Associativemeaning（联想意义）isthetotalofallthemeaningsapersonthinksofwhentheyhearthewordAssociativemeaningisthemeaningwhichawordsuggestsorimplies.5 .Thematicmeaning（主位意义）is“whatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis."它是由词序和词语

21、重音所决定的6 .TheReferentialTheory（指称理论）： TheReferentialTheory TheSemanticTriangle SenseandReference7 .Thereferentialtheory指称理论isthetheoryofmeaningwhichrelatesthemeaningofawordtothethingitrefersto.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论8 .Thesemantictriangle语意三角istheindirectrelationbetweenawordandathingitreferstoanditi

22、smediatedbyconcept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的9 .Sense（涵义）isasetofpropertiespossessedbyaname.10. Reference（指称）isthesymbolicrelationshipthatalinguisticexpressionhaswiththeconcreteobject.11. Thesenseofanexpressionisthethoughtitexpresses,whileitsreferenceistheobjectitrepresentsEverywordhasasense,but

23、noteverywordhasareference.12. SenseRelations涵义关系Synonymy（同义关系）Antonymy（反义关系）（Gradable、ComplementaryConverse）Hyponymy（上下义关系）13.Buttotalsynonymyisrare.Theymaydifferinstyle,connotationsanddialect.14. Gradableantonymy（等级反义关系）Complementaryantonymy（互补反义关系）Converseantonymy（反向反义关系）15. Componentialanalysisis

24、anapproachtothestudyofmeaningwhichanalysesawordintoasetofmeaningcomponents.16. SentenceMeaning17. Senserelationsbetweensentences Synonymity（同义）a. Hewasabachelorallhislife.b. Henevermarriedallhisboy.Sentencesaandbareinasynonymousrelationship:thetruthofonesentencenecessarilyimpliesthetruthofanothersen

25、tence Inconsistency（矛盾）a. ElizabethIIisQueenofEngland.b. ElizabethIIisaman.Sentencesaandbareinarelationshipofcontradiction:thetruthofonesentencenecessarilyimpliesthefalsenessofanothersentence. Entailment（蕴涵）a. Hemarriedablondeheiress.b. Hemarriedablonde.Entailmentreferstoakindofmeaninginclusion.Ifxe

26、ntailsy,themeaningofxisincludediny. Presupposition（前提预设）Itiswhataspeakerorwriterassumesthatthereceiverofthemessagealreadyknows.（DContradiction（矛盾）Semanticanomaly（语义反常）18. Anintegratedtheory* Compositionality（组合性原贝U）：themeaningofasentencedependsonthemeaningoftheconstituentwordsandthewaytheyarecombine

27、d.* Thissemantictheoryistheintegrationofsyntaxandsemantics* Theirbasicideaisthatasemantictheoryconsistsoftwoparts:adictionaryandasetofprojectionrules* Thedictionaryprovidesthegrammaticalclassificationandsemanticinformationofwords* Theprojectionrulesareresponsibleforcombiningthemeaningsofwordstogethe

28、r.19. Logicalsemantics（逻辑语义学）* Aproposition（命题）iswhatistobeexpressedbyadeclarativesentencewhenthatsentenceisutteredtomakeastatement.* Itisthebasicmeaningwhichasentenceexpress.* Averyimportantpropertyofthepropositionisthatithasatruthvalue.第八章1 .WhatisPragmaticsPragmaticsisthestudyoflanguageincontext/use/communication.2 SemanticsandPragmaticsSimilarity:PragmaticsandsemanticsarebothlinguisticstudyofmeaningDifference:Semanticmeaning:themoreconstant,inherentsideofmeaning;Pragmaticmeani