精品英语文档：Aeschylus(525-456BC)

1、.European Culture: An IntroductionIntroduction to the courseI. Arrangement of contents The teaching materials are sequentially arranged. There are ten divisions altogether. In the first division, we talk about Greek Culture and Roman Culture; in division two, the Bible and Christianity; in the third

2、 division, the Middle Ages; in the fourth one, Renaissance and Reformation; in the fifth division, the 17th Century; and then the rest divisions are the Age of Enlightenment, Romanticism, Marxism and Darwinism, Realism and Modernism and Other Trends.II. Two Major Elements in European Culture Two of

3、the elements which have gone through changes over the centuries are considered to be more enduring and they are: the Greco-Roman element and the Judeo-Christian element.Division One Greek Culture and Roman CultureI Greek Culture1. The historical context a. Trojan War: 1200B.C. b. Persian invasion: 5

4、th century B.C. c. Civil War between Athens and Sparta: at the end of the 5th century B.C.d. Spread of Greek Culture: Alexander, King of Macedon, the second half of the 4th century.e. Roman conquering Greece: in 146 B.C. 2. Social and political structure Athens was a democracy which means “exercise

5、of power by the whole people.” By “the whole people” the Greeks meant only the adult male citizens, and citizenship was a set of rights which a man inherited from his father. Women, children, foreigners and slaves had no rights. The economy of Athens rested on an immense amount of labor of slaves wh

6、o worked on farms and in workshops and mines. The Olympic Games were held every four years on Olympus Mount. It was later revived in 1896.3. Literature a. Homers epics: the Iliad & the OdysseyThe Iliad deals with the alliance of the states of the southern mainland of Greece, led by Agamemnon in

7、their war against the city of Troy.The Odyssey deals with the return of Odysseys after the Trojan war to his home island of Ithaca. It describes many adventures he ran into on his long sea voyage and how finally he was reunited with his faithful wife Penelope. b. Lyric poetry: Sappho & Pindar Sa

8、ppho is noted for her love poems of passionate intensity. Pindar is best known for his odes celebrating the victories at eh athletic games, such as the 14 Olympian odes. John Dryden, a 17th century English poet, imitated Pindar. c. Drama: 1) TragedyAeschylus(525-456B.C.): Prometheus Bound, Persians,

9、 and Agamemnon were written in verse. Aeschylus is noted for his vivid character portrayal and majestic poetry.Sophocles(496-406B.C.): Oedipus the King, Electra and Antigone contributed greatly to tragic art. He added a third actor and decreased the size of the chorus.Euripides(484-406B.C.): Androma

10、che, Medea, and Trojan Women in which characters are less heroic, more like ordinary people. 2) Comedy Aristophanes (about 450-380B.C.): Frogs, Clouds, Wasps, and Birds are loose in plot and satirical in tone, full of clever parody and acute criticism. Coarse language is a striking feature of Aristo

11、phanes.4. History a. Herodotus (484-430 B.C.): “Father of History”, wrote about the wars between Greeks and Persians. His history is full of anecdotes and digressions and lively dialogue, but not always accurate. b. Thucydides (about 460-404B.C.): more accurate as an historian who told about the war

12、 between Athens and Sparta and between Athens and Syracuse, a Greek state on the island of Sicily. He wrote with imagination and power. 5. Philosophy a. Pythagoras (about 580-500B.C.): the founder of scientific mathematics, believing all things were numbers. He put forward the abstract conceptions u

13、nderlying mathematicspoint, line, magnitude, surface, bodyand the first theory of proportion. b. Heracleitue (about 540-480B.C.): the early exponent of materialism, believing fire to be the primary element of the universe, out of which everything else had arisen, putting forward the theory of the mi

14、ngling of opposites, and believing it was the strife between the opposites that produced harmony. “All is flux, nothing is stationery.” c. Democritus (about 460-370B.C.): one of the earliest exponents of the atomic theory and philosophical materialists, believing the atomic structure of matter. d. S

15、ocrates(about 470-399B.C.): known through the famous Dialogues compiled by his student Plato, ready to discuss anything in heaven and earth, specializing in exposing fallacies, using the method of argument which, by questions and answers, has come to be known as the dialectical method. e. Plato(abou

16、t 428-348B.C.): Dialogues, a brilliant stylist writing with wit and grace. Shelley said: “Plato was essentially a poetthe truth and splendor of his imagery, and the melody of his language, are the most intense that it is possible to conceive.” After Socrates was put to death, he went traveling abroa

17、d for 12 years, returning to Athens and buying a house and garden in a public park called the Academy where he studied and lectured on philosophy, mathematics and astronomy. Then he became tutor of the kings son trying to turn him into “a philosophical king”. Dialogues, of which 27 have survived, in

18、cludes The Apology (Socrates defense of himself at the trial), Symposium (dealing with beauty and love), and the Republic (about the ideal state ruled by a philosopher but barring poets) Platos Idealism theory: He built up a comprehensive system of philosophy dealing with, among other things, the pr

19、oblem of how, in the complex, ever-changing world, men were to attain knowledge. He believed men have knowledge because of the existence of certain general “ideas”, like beauty, truth, goodness. Only these “ideas” are completely real, while the physical world is only relatively real. f. Aristotle (3

20、84-322 B.C.): tutor of Alexander the Macedonian King, Retired to Athens to found his own school at the Lyceum and spent his last years in teaching and research. In Aristotle, the great humanist and the great man of science meet. On logic, moral philosophy, politics, metaphysics, psychology, physics,

21、 zoology, poetry, rhetoric, he wrote epoch-making works, which dominated European thought for more than a thousand years. Dante called him “the master of those who know”. His works: Ethics (an introduction to moral philosophy), Politics, Poetics (a treatise on literary theory), and Rhetoric (dealing

22、 with the art of persuading an audience). His philosophy: For one thing, Aristotle emphasized direct observation of nature and insisted that theory should follow fact. Again, he thought that “form” (=idea) and matter together made up concrete individual realities. Happiness is mans aim in life. By h

23、appiness, he meant sth that could only be achieved by leading a life of reason, goodness and contemplation. g. Contending Schools of Thought: the Sophists, the Cynics, the Sceptics, the Epicureans and the Stoics.The Sophists: teachers of the art of arguing. The most eminent was Protagoras（普罗塔格拉斯）who

24、 wrote a book On the Gods and is chiefly noted for his doctrine that “man is the measure of all things.”Four contending schools in the 4th century: The Cynics (犬儒派): getting their name because Diogenes, one of their leaders, who decided to live like a dog. The word “cynic” means “dog” in Greek.The S

25、ceptics(怀疑派)：with Pyrrhou as their leader, who held that not all knowledge was attainable, doubting the truth of what others accepted as true.The Epicureans(享乐派): disciples of Epicurus, who believed pleasure to be the highest good in life, but by pleasure he meant, not sensual enjoyment, but freedom

26、 from pain and emotional upheaval.The Stoics(斯多葛派)：believing the most important thing in life was “duty”. One should endure hardship and misfortune with courage. The chief stoic was Zeno (芝诺), a materialist, asserting the existence of the real world and believing there is no such thing as chance, th

27、e course of nature is rigidly determined by natural laws.6. Science Many Greek philosophers were at the same time scientists. For example, Plato was a mathematician and Aristotle contributed to zoology and started methodical research patiently collecting material and laying massive foundations for m

28、odern science. Other scientist-philosophers like Democritus who put forward the first Atomic theory. After them, two men may be mentioned for what they did to push science forward, both lived in the 3rd century B.C.a. Euclid(欧基里德): well-known for his Elements, a textbook of geometry which was in use

29、 in English schools until the early years of the 20th century.b. Archimedes(阿基米德)：contributing not only to geometry, but also in arithmetic, mechanics, and hydrostatics (流体静力学); discovering when a body is immersed in water, its loss of weight is equal to the water displaced; inventing machines which

30、 greatly helped his native city Syracuse against the Romans; “Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world.”illustrating the principle of the lever.Greek science was applied in many fields. For example: Mathematics as applied in at least five fields: acoustics, optics, geography, statistics a

31、nd astronomy. Greek scientists were able to deduce theories and built up systems which had a trememdous influence on later scientists. 7. Art, Architecture, Sculpture and Pottery a. Art: a visual proof of Greek civilization. Greeks put in works of art the things they admired and worshipped, the scie

32、ntific rules they discovered, and the stories they loved and believed. b. Architecture: Three styles of Greek architecture: The Doric style (also called the masculine style), the Ionic style (also called the feminine style) and a later style called the Corinthian style. The Doric style: sturdy, powe

33、rful, severelooking an showing a good sense of proportions and numbers, but monotonous and unadorned. The Ionic style: graceful and elegant, showing a wealth of ornament. The Corinthian style: known for its ornamental luxury.In ancient Greece three types of columns can be found; Doric, Ionic, and Co

34、rinthian. All three types of columns have three separate parts to their structure (base, shaft, and capital) with the exception of Doric which has no base. The base is all one piece as well as the capital. The shaft is composed of several pieces which fit together in a tongue-and-groove type of secu

35、ring. Columns were constructed in a raw fashion first before the final product was produced Doric Style Of the three columns found in Greece, Doric columns are the most basic and undecorative, with a square and circular capital and a plain 20 sided shaft. There is no base leaving this column with a

36、very straightforward but powerful presence in its design. During the Archaic period, Doric columns were shorter compared to their height and diameter. Doric capitals showed an evolution from a broad flaring to a more compact form. Doric, like most Greek styles, emitted a strong horizontal presence i

37、n its architectural design. The area above the columns, the frieze and architrave, had no set style and is found to have a wide variety only following the simple pattern shown in the picture. Above each column a triglyph (vertical band) was carved and between each of these was a metope filled with s

38、culpture of history, myths, religious events, etc. Ionic Style Ionic columns were more slender and narrowly fluted than Doric, and also had what is called entasis; which is a convex swelling to prevent an illusion of concavity in a column shaft. A large base was added consisting of a textured profil

39、e like that of stacked rings. Ionic capitals consist of a scroll-like portion above a decorative shaft portion. The Ionic style has a more decorative capital. Instead of the single scene carvings of the Doric style in the frieze, the Ionic had a continuous band of carvings. Corinthian Style The Cori

40、nthian columns are the most decorative and usually the most appealing to the modern eye. They too use entasis to correct the optical illusions of the massive Greek structures. The Corinthian capitals have flowering, leaf-like structures below a lesser scroll design than that of Ionian capitals. The

41、shaft has indented sides and the base is a more refined version of the Ionian. Unlike the Doric and Ionian roofs, which are at a slant, the Corinthian roofs are flat. The Corinthian frieze is the same as the Ionic frieze, but on a smaller scale. Greek Temple Architecture The Greeks developed three a

42、rchitectural systems, called orders, each with their own distinctive proportions and detailing. The Greek orders are: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Doric style is rather sturdy and its top (the capital), is plain. This style was used in mainland Greece and the colonies in southern Italy and Sici

43、ly. IonicThe Ionic style is thinner and more elegant. Its capital is decorated with a scroll-like design (a volute). This style was found in eastern Greece and the islands.CorinthianThe Corinthian style is seldom used in the Greek world, but often seen on Roman temples. Its capital is very elaborate

44、 and decorated with acanthus leaves.Doric Ionic Corinthian The Acropolis at Athens (437-432 B.C.) and Parthenon are the finest monument of Greek architecture and sculpture in more than 2000 years. Parthenon(巴特农神殿): a great tourist attraction, is the most important temples the ancient Greeks built up

45、on hills and the most perfect of all, 240 feet one and110 feet wide, a rectangle structure with evenly spaced lines of columns around. (The Acropolis at Athens) (Parthenon 巴特农神殿)c. Sculpture: The earliest Greek sculptures were those of Gods, which are mostly stiff, lifeless wood carvings. Toward 7th

46、 century B.C. the size of the statues became bigger and life-size. The 5th century B.C. marked a development in sculpture. Before it, everything was stiff ad mechanical. In the5th century B.C. , the beauty of the internal structure of human bodies and mythological figures are well-observed and broug

47、ht out. Examples: 1) Discus Thrower(掷铁饼者): 2) Venus de Milo (断臂的维纳斯)：Venus with broken arms, discovered in the island of Milo in 1820. 3）Laocoon group about 125 B.C. d. Pottery: a result of domestic needs and the needs for foreign trade, including jars and other utensils for holding water, wine, foo

48、d and also cosmetics, in varying shapes with beautiful figures painted on them from everyday scene to animals and figures in Iliad and Odyssey. The most important ones are vases from Attica produced in and around Athens. Black-figure paintings(700-600B.C.)& Red-figure paintings (-50B.C.) (red-fi

49、gure painting).8. Impact of Greek culture a. spirit of innovation b. supreme achievement c. lasting effect II. Greek Mythology1. INTRODUCTIONGreek Mythology, set of diverse traditional tales told by the ancient Greeks about the exploits of gods and heroes and their relations with

50、 ordinary mortals.The ancient Greeks worshiped many gods within a culture that tolerated diversity. Unlike other belief systems, Greek culture recognized no single truth or code and produced no sacred, written text like the Bible or the Quran. Stories about the origins and actions of

51、Greek divinities varied widely, depending, for example, on whether the tale appeared in a comedy, tragedy, or epic poem. Greek mythology was like a complex and rich language, in which the Greeks could express a vast range of perceptions about the world.A Greek city-state devoted itsel

52、f to a particular god or group of gods in whose honor it built temples. The temple generally housed a statue of the god or gods. The Greeks honored the citys gods in festivals and also offered sacrifices to the gods, usually a domestic animal such as a goat. Stories about the gods varied by geograph

53、ic location: A god might have one set of characteristics in one city or region and quite different characteristics elsewhere. 2. PRINCIPAL FIGURES IN GREEK MYTHOLOGYGreek mythology has several distinguishing characteristics, in addition to its multiple versions. The Greek gods resembl

54、ed human beings in their form and in their emotions, and they lived in a society that resembled human society in its levels of authority and power. However, a crucial difference existed between gods and human beings: Humans died, and gods were immortal. Heroes also played an important role in Greek

55、mythology, and stories about them conveyed serious themes. The Greeks considered human heroes from the past closer to themselves than were the immortal gods. aGodsGiven the multiplicity of myths that circulated in Greece, it is difficult to present a single version of the genealogy (family

56、 history) of the gods. However, two accounts together provide a genealogy that most ancient Greeks would have recognized. One is the account given by Greek poet Hesiod in his Theogony (Genealogy of the Gods), written in the 8th century bc. The other account, The Library, is attributed to a mythograp

57、her (compiler of myths) named Apollodorus, who lived during the 2nd century bc.a1The Creation of the GodsAccording to Greek myths about creation, the god Chaos (Greek for “Gaping Void”) was the foundation of all things. From Chaos came Gaea (“Earth”); the bottomless depth of the under

58、world, known as Tartarus; and Eros (“Love”). Eros, the god of love, was needed to draw divinities together so they might produce offspring. Chaos produced Night, while Gaea first bore Uranus, the god of the heavens, and after him produced the mountains, sea, and gods known as Titans. The Titans were

59、 strong and large, and they committed arrogant deeds. The youngest and most important Titan was Cronus. Uranus and Gaea, who came to personify Heaven and Earth, also gave birth to the Cyclopes, one-eyed giants who made thunderbolts.a2Cronus and RheaUranus tried to block any successors from taking over his