跨文化交际整理材料

1、跨文化交际整理材料1. Communication ：(1) Communication is A form of human behavior derived from a need to connect and interact with other human beings. It occurs whenever meaning is attributed to behavior or the residue of behavior.(2) Its components: Message, Sender, Receiver, Channel, Noise, Feedback, Encod

2、ing, Decoding.(3) Characteristics : communication is dynamic; irreversible; symbolic; systemic; self-reflective; interactive; complex.(4) Five types of communication: human communication; animal communication; human-animal communication; human-machine communication; machine-to-machine communication.

3、 (In summary, under communication, we have human and biological/physical communication; under human communication, we have non-social and social communication; intre-personal in non-social communication while social communication includes interpersonal, organizational, and mass communication. )2. In

4、tercultural business communication :(1) ICC is the term first used by Edward T. Hall in 1959 andis simply defined as interpersonal communication betweenmembers of different cultures. ICBC is a relatively new term in the business world and it is defined as communication within and between businesses

5、that involve people from more than one culture.(2)ICC 的分类： ICC includes International communication (between nations and governments rather than individuals); Interethnic communication (between people of the same race but different ethnic background) (Tibetan vs. Han); Interracial communication (Afr

6、o-American vs. white American) ; Interregional communication: (northerner vs. southerner)(3) 跨文化交际障碍 Barriers in Intercultural Communication: a. Avoidance of the unfamiliar 疏远陌生 ; b. Uncertainty reduction 减少不确定性 ; c. Withdrawal 回避 ; d. Stereotyping 定势 ; e. Prejudice 偏见 ; f. Racism 种族 ; e. Misuse of

7、power 滥用权力 ; h. Culture shock 文化震惊 ; i. Ethnocentrism 文化优越感 .3. Stereotyping: A stereotypes is an overly simplified / generalized way of thinking about a person, group, etc. Anyone can stereotype and can be the target of stereotyping! ( 课件答案 ) Stereotyping is a complex form of categorization that me

8、ntally organizes your experiences and guides your behavior toward a particular group of people. (课本答案)4. Prejudice: Prejudice refers to the irrational dislike, suspicion, or hatred of a particular group, race, religion, or sexual orientation. Learned beliefs and values that lead an individual or gro

9、up of individuals to be biased for or against members of particular groups prior to actual experience of those groups. E.g Residents of Shanghai Relation between Stereotype and prejudice 定势和偏见的区别Both are a stumbling block to ICC. Prejudice usually refers to the negative aspect when a group inherits

10、or generates hostile views about a distinguishable group based on generalizations. These generalizations are invariably derived from inaccurate or incomplete information about the other group.The generalization are called stereotyping.5. Racism: (课本) It refers to the belief that one racial category

11、is innately superior to another. (课件) It is any policy, practice, beliefs or attitude that attributes characteristics or status to individuals based on their race. It can either be conscious or unconscious, intentional or unintentional.6. Culture shock: Cultural shock is precipitated by the anxiety

12、that results from losing all our familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse. Four stages (U-curve): Honeymoon phase; Culture shock phase/ Depression (horror); Recoveryphase;Adjustment; (Acceptance/ Home)7. Ethnocentrism 民族优越感 : Ethnocentrism is the belief that you own cultural background, incl

13、uding ways of analyzing problems, values, beliefs, language, and verbal and nonverbal communication, is correct. Ethnocentrists believe their culture is the central culture and other cultures are incorrect, defective, or quaint. (The negative impact of ethnocentrism on intercultural communication is

14、 obvious: it shapes social sense of identity which is narrow and defensive; it normally involves the perception of members of other cultures in terms of stereotypes; ethnocentric judgments usually involve invidious comparisons that ennoble one 's culture while degrading those of others. )8. Cult

15、ure: Culture is the total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, behaviors. Institutions and communication patterns that are shared, learned and passed down through the generations in an identifiable group of people. (p41) Culture can be classified by three large categories of elements： (1) Artif

16、act; (2) concepts; (3) behavior . Characteristic of Culture ：( 1)Culture is not innate; it is learned 文化不是先天遗传的而是后天习得的;( 2)Culture istransmitted from generation to generation (social heredity) 文化是代代相传的 ；(3)Culture is selective 具有选择性 ；(4)The facets of culture are in terrelated文化各要素相关联的 ；(5)Culture is

17、 eth nocen tric本民族具有文化优越感的倾向；(6)Culture is subject to change 是发展变化的.9. Cultural values 定义以及四个层次：Values are a con cepti on, explicit or implicit, disti nctive of an in dividual orcharacteristic of a group, of the desirable which in flue nces the selectio n from available modes, means, and ends of act

18、io n ” 文化观念的四个层次：(1)Symbols符号;(2)Heroes英雄;(3)Rituals习惯；(4)Values价值观.(价值观的三个层次：(1)Universal values普遍的价值观；(2)Cultural-specific values 某一文化特有的价值观；(3)Peculiarexpressi on or deviati ons of in dividuals with in cultures文化中的个体所持有的价值观.)10. Power distance 定义： Power distanee indicates the extent to which a so

19、ciety accepts the fact that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally among individuals.(A High Power Dista nee ranking in dicates that in equalities of power and wealth have bee n allowed to grow within the society. These societies are more likely to accept a hierarchical ord

20、er. E.g. Mexico, South Korea, In dia.A Low Power Distanee ranking indicates the society de-emphasizes the differences between citizen's power and wealth. In these societies equality and opport un ity for every one is stressed. E.g U.S.)11. Masculinity & Femininity 区另U: Masculinity indicates

21、the extent to which the dominant values in a society tend towards assertiveness and acquisition of things and away concern for people and the quality of life. Masculinity comes from masculine and implies aggressiveness and assertiveness, while femininity comes from feminine and stresses naturaring,

22、caring attention to people ' feelings and needs.Masculinity: a high degree of gender differentiation, achievement, heroism, aggressiveness, assertiveness, material success. For Example: Japan, Austria, Italy.Femininity: equal gen der relati on ships, modesty, cari ng for the weak, quality of lif

23、e. For example: Swede n, Norway, and Denm ark.12. Uncertainty avoidance 回避不确定性： It indicates the extent to which a society feels threatened by ambiguous situati on and tries to avoid them by providi ng rules, believi ng in absolute truths and refus ing to tolerate devia nee.Strong Uncertainty Avoida

24、nce: un comfortable with un certa inty and ambiguity, in tolera nt with devia nee. This creates a rule-oriented society that institutes laws, rules, regulations, and controls in order to reduce the amount of uncertainty. For Example: Greece, Belgium, Portugal, Japa n, Chile, Israel, and Spain.Weak U

25、ncertainty Avoidance : Practice counts more tha n prin ciples； devia nee is more easily tolerated. This is reflected in a society that is less rule-oriented, more readily accepts change, and takes more and greater risks. For example: Singapore, Swede n, Denm ark, Malaysia13. Universalism & Parti

26、cularism 普遍主义与特殊主义区别：Extent of belief in defined set of rules. Universalism:Performa nce-based con siderati ons. Particularism: Relati on ship- or situatio n-based con siderati ons. Universalistic cultures focus more on rules tha n relati on ships, have a prefere nee for legal con tracts, and believ

27、e there is only one truth. In uni versalistic cultures a deal is a deal. Trust is based on honoring your word or con tract. Fairness is treati ng all people the same (United States, Australia, Germany, Sweden, and the United Kingdom ) . Particularistic cultures focus more on relati on ships, cha nge

28、 legal con tracts easily and believe in several perspectives on reality. Particularists evolve their relati on ships to suit the situati ons. (V en ezuela, Korea, the former Soviet Union, China, Indon esia)14. Emotional & Neutral 中立型和情感型的区别： Exte nt to which emotio ns are ope nly expressed. Neut

29、ral: Reserved and composed. Emoti on al: Very expressive. Affective (Emotional): Affective cultures readily express their thoughts and feeli ngs. Express ing feeli ngs relieves tension. Emotio ns flow easily. Touchi ng and gestures are com mon. Stateme nts are dramatic and flue nt. Neutral cultures

30、do not ope nly reveal thoughts and feeli ngs, admire self-possessed behavior and frown on physical con tact.( 课本定义参考 A neutral culture is one in whichemotions are held in check. Ethiopia, Japan, China, and India are highneutral cultures. People in these countries try not to show their feelings； they

31、 act stoically and maintain their composure. A emotional culture is one in which emotions are openly and naturally expressed. People in emotional cultures often smile a great deal, talk loudly when they are excited, and greet each other with a great deal of enthusiasm. Mexico, the Netherlands, and S

32、witzerla nd are examples of high emoti onal cultures.)15. Diffuse & Specific 明 确型和 弥漫型 的区别：Extent to which various life roles kept separate. Specific:Compartme ntalize roles. Specific cultures get to know people easily and maintain flexible relati on ships; yet specific cultures make acqua intan

33、 ces for specific or limited reas ons.Diffuse: Mix pers on al, professi on al, and private roles. Diffuse cultureson the other hand, keep their dista nce from unknown others .In dividuals are slower to developrelati on ships; however, oncean in dividual has bee n accepted in a diffuse culture that p

34、ers on is in all the way. Example: p. 68（课文定义参考 A specific culture is one in which in dividuals have a larger public space they readily let others en ter and share and a small private space they guard closely and share with only close friends and associates. A diffuse culture is one in which both pu

35、blic and private space are similar in size and in dividuals guard their public space carefully, because entry into public space affords entry into private space as well16. Ascription & Achievement 成就与归属的区另U:Extent to which status depends on certain factors. Achievement:Status lin ked to goals ob

36、ta ined or performa nce.Ascription: Status lin ked to age, connections, class, or gen der. Similar toKluckhoh n ' social relati on ships （hierarchy/ group/ i ndividual）Achievement- AscriptionAustria Un ited States Switzerla nd Un ited Kin gdom Swede n Sin gapore Former Soviet Union Chi na Indon

37、esia V en ezuela （课本：An achieveme nt culture is one in which people are accorded status based on how well they perform their fun ctio ns. An ascription culture is one in which status is attributed based on who or what a person is.）17. Low-context culture & High-context culture 区别：Low-context cul

38、ture: Tends to prefer direct verbal in teract ion; Tends to un dersta nd meanings at one level only; Is gen erally less proficie nt readi ng non verbal cues; V alues in dividualism; Relies more on logic; Employs lin ear logic; Sayi ng no directly; Communi cates in highly structured messages, provide

39、s details, stresses literal meanin gs, gives authority to writte n in formati on.High-context culture: Tends to prefer in direct verbal in teractio n; Tends to un dersta nd meanings embedded at many socio-cultural levels; Is gen erally more proficie nt n readi ng non verbal cues; Values group member

40、ship; Relies more on con text and feeli ng; Employs spiral logic; Talks around point, avoids say ing no; Communi cates in simple, ambiguous, noncon texted messages; un dersta nds visual messages readily.High-Context Cultures *Low-Context CulturesJapa nese Chin ese Korea n .America n Scandin avia n G

41、erma n Germa n-Swiss18. Individualism & Collectivism 个人主义和集体主义的区别：Individualism indicates the extent to which a society is aloosely knit social framework in which people are supposed to take care of only of themselves and their immediate families. Collectivism emphasizes com mon in terests, con

42、formity, cooperati on, and in terdepe ndence. It in dicates a tight social framework in which people dist in guish betwee n in-groups and out-groups and expect their in-group to look after them.（ P60 表格对比） It is believed that in dividual is the core of western cultural value, while collectivism is t

43、he core of Eastern cultural value. Decision making in an individualist culture may be more rapid, the implementation of a change in policy willbe perceptibly slower tha n in a collectivist culture. The in dividual will go along with what is best for the group with few questi ons asked. P7719. Sapir-

44、Whorf hypothesis P92 （详细见课本）：Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf concluded that Ianguage not onlyserves as a mecha nism for com muni cati on, but as a guide to social reality.“an guage is a reflect ion of culture, and culture isa reflect ion of Ian guage. ” Some examples:P9220. Connotation & Denotat

45、ion 内涵意义和概念意义。（不记定义，P94-95举例、图连线）：Denotation: dictionary definition.Connotation （Cultural connotation） : the implication of a word, apart from its primary meaning " （Longman Modern English Diction ary） the suggesti ng of a meaning by a word apart from the thing it explicitly n ames or describes

46、" （Webster 'NewCollegiate Dictio nary） eg. 松，竹，梅 vs. pi ne, bamboo, plum （具体参考课件和课本例子）21. Deductive & Inductive 演绎法和归纳法：The deductive pattern: from the general to the specific;（西方交际模式）thein ductive pattern: from the specific to the general （东方交际模式）.（具体例子见 P116-118）22. Nonverbal communic

47、ation 定义、 功能:（1）" Non verbal com mun icati on in volves all non verbal stimuli in acom muni cati on sett ing that is gen erated by both the source and his or her use of the environment and that has pote ntial message value for the source or receiver. （Samovar and Porter, 2004） Simply, non verba

48、l com muni cati on refers to com muni cati on without the use of words. Non verbal com muni catio n is the study of facial expressi ons, touch, time, gestures, smell, eye behavior, and so on.(2) Functions: (1) Replaci ng/ substituti ng (eg. A no isy cafeteria might get you to wave at a frie nd in st

49、ead of scream ing to get his attention); (2) Regulating (Eg. Turn taking); (3) Conveying; (4) Modifying (Eg. Loudness and tone of voice);(5) Repeating; (6) Complementing (eg.“Attention please; (7)Cor)tradicting (When there are contradictions, people tend tobelieve the verbal messages or non verbal o

50、n es?);(8)Acce nting (eg. A well-skilled public speaker might pause before orafter an importa nt point in a speech.)A matrix of verbal versus nonverbal behaviorsVerbal (symbolic)Non verbal (non symbolic)VocalVerbal/vocal behaviorsNon verbal/vocalBehaviors (eg. The rate, loud ness, softn ess of speec

51、h etc.)non vocalVerbal/non vocalBehaviors(eg. America n Sign Lan guage)Non verbal/non vocalBehaviors (eg. Body Ian guage, use of space etc.)ClassificationBody Ianguage: posture, head movement, facial expressions, eye behavior, gestures, handshaking, arm movement, leg moveme nt etc.Paralanguage: soun

52、d, pitch, tempo of speech, turn-taking, sileneeObject language: clothing, personal artifacts, hair, etc.Environmen tai la nguage: time Ian guage, spatial la nguage, color, light, sig ns and symbols, architecture, etc.23. Paralanguage 副语言:Parala nguage lies betwee n verbal and non verbal com mun icat

53、i on. It in volves sounds but not words. It is related to oral com muni cati on. It refers to the rate, pitch, and volume qualities of the voice, which in terrupt or temporarily take the place of speech and affect the meaning of a message.Researchers divide paralanguage into three categories: voice

54、quality, vocal qualifiers, and vocalizati on.Voice Qualifiers 声音的修饰： refers to volume, pitch, rhythm, resonance, tempo Tone, stresses, etc.(课文例子 P154) Vocalization 发音:un-huh , shh , uh , oooh , mmmh(P156)Silenee沉默：(沉默是划分高语境文化和低语境文化的一条重要标准P157-158)24. Spatial language/Proximics 4 种空间语言： Spatial language is the study of the way that people use physical space to convey message. Proxemics is usu. concerned with pers onal space and office space. Factors that affect pers onal space: sex, age, re