《社会研究方法》艾尔巴比 英文ppt Ch

1、2021/4/11Chapter 2Paradigms, Theory, And Research2021/4/12Chapter OutlineIntroductionSome Social Science ParadigmsElements of Social TheoryTwo Logical Systems RevisitedDeductive Theory Construction Inductive Theory ConstructionThe Links Between Theory and Research2021/4/13Theory and ResearchTheory f

2、unctions three ways in research:Theories prevent our being taken in by flukes.Theories make sense of observed patterns in ways that can suggest other possibilities. 1.Theories can direct research efforts, pointing toward likely discoveries through empirical observation.2021/4/14QuestionWhich of the

3、following do theories seek to provide?personal experiencediscoverycorrelationsA.logical explanations2021/4/15Answer: DTheories seek to provide logical explanations.2021/4/16ParadigmsA model or framework for observation and understanding, which shapes both what we see and how we understand it.The con

4、flict paradigm causes us to see social behavior one way, the interactionist paradigm causes us to see it differently. We can see new ways of seeing and explaining things when we step outside our paradigm.2021/4/17Social Science Paradigms: MacrotheoryMacrotheory deals with large, aggregate entities o

5、f society or whole societies. Struggle between economic classes, international relations2021/4/18Social Science Paradigms: MicrotheoryMicrotheory deals with issues at the level of individuals and small groups.Dating behavior, jury deliberations, student faculty interactions2021/4/19Social Science Pa

6、radigms: Social DarwinismComtes view that science would replace religion and metaphysics by basing knowledge on observations. Comte coined positivism, in contrast to what he regarded as negative elements in the Enlightenment.2021/4/110Social Science Paradigms: ConflictMarx suggested social behavior

7、could be seen as the process of conflict: Attempt to dominate others.Attempt to avoid domination.2021/4/111Social Science Paradigms: Symbolic Interactionism Interactions revolve around individuals reaching understanding through language and other systems.Can lend insights into the nature of interact

8、ions in ordinary social life.2021/4/112Social Science Paradigms: EthnomethodologyPeople are continuously trying to make sense of the life they experience.One technique is to break the rules and violate peoples expectations.2021/4/113Social Science Paradigms: Structural FunctionalismA social entity,

9、such as an organization, can be viewed as an organism.A social system is made up of parts, each of which contributes to the functioning of the whole.This view looks for the “functions” served by the various components of society.2021/4/114Social Science Paradigms: FeminismFocuses on gender differenc

10、es and how they relate to the rest of social organization.Draws attention to the oppression of women in many societies, and sheds light on all kinds of oppression.2021/4/115Question _ are fundamental frames of reference.perspectivestheoriesparadigmsA.methods2021/4/116Answer: CParadigms are fundament

11、al frames of reference.2021/4/117Question_ can lend insights into the nature of interactions in ordinary social life.symbolic interactionismconflict theorystructural functionalismfeminist theoryA.none of these choices2021/4/118Answer: ASymbolic interactionism can lend insights into the nature of int

12、eractions in ordinary social life.2021/4/119Womens Ways of Knowing5 perspectives on knowing that challenge the view of inquiry as straightforward:1.Silence: Some women feel isolated from knowledge, their lives are largely determined by external authorities.2021/4/120Womens Ways of KnowingReceived kn

13、owledge: Women feel comfortable taking in knowledge from external authorities.Subjective knowledge: Open to the possibility of personal, subjective knowledge, including intuition.2021/4/121Womens Ways of KnowingProcedural knowledge: Learning how to gain knowledge through objective procedures.Constru

14、cted knowledge: Women view knowledge as contextual, experience themselves as creators of knowledge and value subjective and objective ways of knowing.2021/4/122Social Science Paradigms: Critical Race TheoryIn the mid-1970s, civil rights activists and social scientists began the codification of a par

15、adigm based on a commitment to racial justice.The concept of interest convergence suggests that laws will only be changed to benefit African Americans if those changes further the interests of whites.2021/4/123Asch ExperimentPurpose was to see whether subjects were swayed by pressure to go along wit

16、h an incorrect answer.Initial experiments, found that a little over 1/3 of subjects were.2021/4/124Elements of Social TheoryTheories are systematic sets of interrelated statements intended to explain some aspect of social life. A paradigm offers a way of looking, a theory aims at explaining what we

17、see. In social research, observation refers to seeing, hearing, andless commonlytouching.2021/4/125Elements of Social TheorySocial scientists use fact to refer to a phenomenon that has been observed. Scientists organize many facts under “rules” called laws. A variable is a special kind of concept.Ax

18、ioms or postulates are assertions, taken to be true, on which a theory is grounded.2021/4/126Elements of Social TheoryPropositions are specific conclusions, derived from the axiomatic groundwork, about the relationships among concepts.A hypothesis is a specified testable expectation about empirical

19、reality that follows from a more general proposition. Research is designed to test hypotheses.2021/4/127Question _ is/are systematic sets of interrelated statements intended to explain some aspect of social life.answersknowledgepracticalitytheoriesA.truth2021/4/128Answer: DTheories are systematic se

20、ts of interrelated statements intended to explain some aspect of social life.2021/4/129Traditional Model of ScienceThere are three main elements in the traditional model of science: TheoryOperationalization - Developing operational definitions, or specifying the exact operations involved in measurin

21、g a variable. Observation - Looking at the world and making measurements of what is seen. 2021/4/130Operational DefinitionThe concrete and specific definition of something in terms of the operations by which observations are to be categorized. 2021/4/131The Traditional Image of ScienceThe deductive

22、model of scientific inquiry begins with a sometimes vague or general question, which is subjected to a process of specification, resulting in hypotheses that can be tested through empirical observations.2021/4/132Null HypothesisIn connection with hypothesis testing and tests of statistical significa

23、nce, that hypothesis that suggests there is no relationship among the variables under study. You may conclude that the variables are related after having statistically rejected the null hypothesis.2021/4/1332021/4/134Linking Social Scientific Theory and ResearchDeduction - Deriving expectations or h

24、ypotheses from theories.Induction - Developing generalizations from specific observations.2021/4/135Deductive Theory ConstructionPick a topic. Specify a range: Will your theory apply to all of human social life, only certain ages? Identify major concerns and variables. Find out what is known about t

25、he relationships among the variables.Reason from those propositions to the topic you are interested in.2021/4/136 Inductive Theory Constructionsocial scientists construct a theory through the inductive method by observing aspects of social life and seeking to discover patterns that point to relative

26、ly universal principles. Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss (1967) used the term grounded theory for this method.Field research, direct observation of events in progress, is frequently used to develop theories through observation.2021/4/137Quick Quiz2021/4/1381. The three main elements of the traditio

27、nal model of science are theory, operationalization, observation.operationalization, hypothesis testing, theory.observation, experimentation, operationalization.theory, observation, hypothesis testing.A.experimentation, hypothesis testing, theory.2021/4/139Answer: AThe three main elements of the tra

28、ditional model of science are theory, operationalization, observation.2021/4/1402. Which of the following is the best example of a hypothesis?The greater the level of education, the greater the tolerance for alternative lifestyles.Socialization in childhood has a significant impact on adolescent gender-role identity.There are more female than male college students.Religiosity equals frequency of church attendance and praying.A.Actions are based on perceived costs and rewards.2021/4/141Answer: AThe following is the best example of a hypothesis: The gre