浙江工商大学跨文化交际期末复习资料

1、定义1、 Intercultural communication p6There are three kinds of things you need to learn if you want to be able to communicate effectively with Westerners. First, you need to learn a foreign language, usually English. Second, you should learn as much as possible about Western cultures. However, studying

2、 English language and western culture is not enough. You should also learn something about what happens when people from different cultures try to communicate with each other-in other words, "intercultural communication." Intercultural communication can help Interpret what foreigners mean.

3、2、 Culture p13A white farmer in Illinois, a black banker in New York and a Latino Walmart worker in Miami look different on the outside, but the ideas and information in their heads will have much in common. You could say they are three different bands of computers that look different on the outside

4、, but have a lot of the same software and data. It is these shared ideas that make a group of people into a culture. A culture is essentially a group of people who carry many of the same ideas in their heads. 3、 Stereotypes p15It is a derogatory word. It means that image, idea, character that has be

5、come fixed or standardized in a conventional form without individuality and is therefore false and shallow. Stereotypes may have a basis in fact, but they are too broad and shallow. They give us the mistaken idea that a culture can be summed up easily in a few short , simple statements. Stereotypes

6、are also dangerous because they may trick us into believing that knowing a few stereotypes is the same thing as understanding another culture.4、 Interpretation p24 对外国人进行揣摩A very important aspect of intercultural communication is “interpretation”, the process of deciding what foreigners words and ac

7、tions mean and why they do what they do. Interpretation is a part of all communication-even the most simple conversations. The words only convey part of the meaning of the message, so you need to use other evidence to help you interpret what he means and decide how to respond. The way you interpret

8、words and actions of individual foreigners will shape how you evaluate those people. 5、Individualist p32Individualist culture is one in which people tend to view themselves as individuals and emphasize the needs of individuals. In general, Western culture tends to be individualist. They view themsel

9、ves as independent of collectives; are primarily motivated by their own preferences, needs, rights, and the contacts they have established with others; give priority to their personal goals over the goals of others; and emphasize rational analyses of the advantages and disadvantages to associating w

10、ith others.6、Collectivist p32Collectivist culture is one in which people tend to view themselves as members of groups (families, work units, tribes, nations), and usually consider the needs of the group to be more important than the needs of individuals. Most Asian cultures, including China's, t

11、end to be collectivist. People see themselves as parts of one or more collectives; are primarily motivated by the norms of, and duties imposed by, those collectives; are willing to give priority to the goals of these collectives over their own personal goals; and emphasize their connectedness to mem

12、bers of these cultures.7、Hierarchy p50Hierarchy is differences in rank and power. Every society has hierarchy to some degree. In other words, some people have higher rank and more power than others, perhaps because they are older, stronger, wealthier, or have some kind of official position. On the o

13、ther hand, however, most modern societies also believe that equality is a virtue, at least to some extent. So each culture needs to find its own balance between hierarchy and equality. Western cultures try to de-emphasize differences in rank and power by creating as much appearance of equality as po

14、ssible and emphasize egalitarian（平等主义） more than others. 8、Culture shock/fatigue文化冲击 P58The constant effort and uncertainty of dealing with a foreign language and culture can lead to a condition called “culture shock/fatigue”. It is a feeling of being confused and overwhelmed by life in another cult

15、ure. People who experience culture shock often feel fatigued, impatient and irritable. They may also begin trying to avoid interaction with foreigners, and even become increasingly critical and hostile toward them. Foreigners in China sometimes experience culture shock and so do Chinese who go to li

16、ve in other countries. 9、High context 背景重要的文化（中日）In collectivist cultures, people tend to communicate in a way that is more indirect and subtle, and listeners are expected to take more responsibility for interpreting messages correctly. This communication style is called “high context” because peopl

17、e are expected to pay much attention to the context in which communication takes place-who the speaker is, where and why the conversation is taking place, body language, and so forth. They often give more weight to the context than to the actual words said. People in high context cultures often view

18、 direct, explicit communication as unsophisticated or even rude.10、Low context 背景不重要的文化The way Westerners communicate tends to be relatively explicit and direct. In other words Westerners tend to put most of their ideas and feelings into words, and then state these ideas and feelings plainly and ope

19、nly. It is generally considered a good thing to “get to the point” and “say what you mean,” and it is largely the speakers responsibility to ensure that his/her message is stated in a way that is clear and easy to understand. This kind of communication style is sometimes called “low context” because

20、 people are expected to pay more attention to the words used in communication than to the context in which things are said. They expect others to “take them at their word”.11、Projected cultural similarity (PCS) 自以为是的文化相似性Projected cultural similarity is the tendency to assume that people from other

21、cultures basically think and feel more the same way we do. In other words, we sometimes assume that while foreigners may look different, dress differently, and speak different languages, "inside we are all more or less the same". People from different culture assume they understand each ot

22、her instead of asking each other what they think. Because they each expect the other person to react more or less the same way they would, they don't check to see whether or not the other person actually has the same feelings and reactions they would. 12、loose culture （美国）Loose cultures do not d

23、emand a high degree of conformity. In loose cultures, people have a relatively wide range of views as to what is considered normal behavior. Of course, such cultures have some consensus on what is and is not considered appropriate behavior, but the consensus is not very strong and there is often muc

24、h disagreement. People in loose cultures also tend to be relatively tolerant of behavior that does not conform to cultural norms. Even if people do not like the way others act or live, they will tend to tolerate it or accept it rather than punishing or criticizing those whose behavior deviates from

25、the norms. This means there is less pressure on individuals within the cultures to behave the same way most other people in the culture do.13、Tight culture 文化一致性很强Tight cultures expect a relatively high degree of conformity. There is clear consensus as to what is and is not acceptable behavior, and

26、there is more pressure on people to conform to the norms of the culture. People in tight cultures also tend to be relatively intolerant of behavior that does not conform to cultural norms. When people do not like the way others act or live, they will not tolerate it and even punish or criticize thos

27、e whose behavior deviates from the norms.14、 Ethnocentrism 民族优越感"Ethnocentrism" is the tendency to think of ones own culture as being at the center of the world and identify with ones in-group and to evaluate out-groups and their members according to its standards. In other words, to assum

28、e that ones own culture's way of thinking and acting is more natural, normal, and correct than the way people from other cultures think and act . They tend to too quickly judge these other ways as strange, wrong or bad. They believe that their own culture is perfect and superior to other culture

29、s.15、 Ingroups “Ingroups” are the people we have the most in common with and identify most closely with, such as our family, classmates, or co-workers. We also have larger in-groups such as people who are from our own region, religious group, ethnic group, or nation.16、 Out-groups“Outgroups” are tho

30、se groups of people who we do not identify with-people from other families, regions, ethnic groups, or nations. Toward outsiders, we tend to be more critical, suspicious, and willing to pass harsh judgments.17、war stories The term “war stories” originally referred to the kinds of stories soldiers wo

31、uld tell after experiences in battle. Now “war stories” refers more generally to any stories people tell after strange or stressful experiences, including stories about unusual encounters with foreigners. War stories naturally tend to be biased against outsides, so they tend to reinforce negative vi

32、ews toward foreigners. Whats more, negative views based on an experience with one foreigner are often used as evidence to draw conclusions about foreigners in general.简答+论述1/2.Why would intercultural communication be more difficult than communication between people from the same culture?/Why is it h

33、ard to teach a culture?(1) Assuming more cultural similarities between themselves and people of other cultures than there actually are can lead to misunderstanding.(2) Language differences are obviously often a source of misunderstanding.(3) People of different cultures often misinterpret non-verbal

34、 communication such as body language and gesture.(4) People often have stereotypes and preconceptions about foreigners which lead to misunderstanding.(5) When people interact with foreigners, they often evaluate before really understand and jump to inaccurate conclusions. They have feelings of anxie

35、ty and stress, the source of which is sometimes culture shock.(6) People assume everyone is similar.(7) People tend to generalize or oversimplify.3. characteristics of Chinese culture1) Collectivism which emphasize on the doctrine of the golden mean(中庸之道)2) There is a large power distance in hierarc

36、hy.3)Hypocritical. Ingroup harmony and good relationships and avoidance of overt (公开的)conflict in interpersonal relations.4)belief in the“naturalness, necessity, and inevitability of hierarchy.”5)Inequality based on achievement, especially academic, moral, and financial achievement5)Belief that “the

37、 judgment of wise people” is a better way to regulate life than rigid, artificial laws6)People exist “in and through relationship with others”7)Academic emphasis on memory, attention to detail, and lengthy homework4. characteristics of America culture (individualism)They believe in the dignity, inde

38、ed the sacredness of the individual. Their highest and noblest aspirations are not only for ourselves, but for those they care about for the society.5/6.What virtues Chinese culture emphasizes most? America?1. Formality(礼节) 2.Hierarchy 3.industriousness（勤奋） 4.being filial （孝顺）5.hard work 6.modesty 7

39、.frugality（节俭）7.Never a borrower or a lender be. (individualism)In individualist cultures, the main distinction people usually make is between “me” and “others” rather than “us” and “them”. Individualist westerners also treat outsides differently from members of their in-groups, the difference is ge

40、nerously not so great; for example, individualists generally wont assist members of their in-groups as much as collectivists would, but they may offer more assistance to outsides than collectivists would. “Never a borrower or a lender be”, this sentence means that it is best to not lend money to oth

41、er people and to not borrow from other people. When we lend something we risk losing both the thing we lend and the friendship with that other person. To begin with, it is because westerners are in Individualist Cultures. Individualists feel less obligation to others, whether they are in-groups or o

42、ut-groups. Secondly, because of their characteristics, their individualism, western people tend to be very independent and self-reliant. They will always solve their problems by themselves. So they dont want others to rely on them, either. 8. What are many ways in which Western societies differ in h

43、ow they view the issue of equality? hierarchy定义后面加：While there are certain differences in rank and power in the West, on the whole, individualist Western Cultures tend to be relatively egalitarian. In other words, they try to minimize rank and power differences, and try to place limits on the power

44、of people in authority.Americans emphasizes on the equality of chances and opportunities. Europeans emphasizes on the equality of material wealth.9/10.What can you do to manage culture fatigue?/A prescription for culture shock?1. Accept the occurrence of culture shock as natural2. Learn about the ho

45、st culture3. Find a logical reason for everything strange or bad about the host culture4. Look for the positive things in the host culture5. Avoid foreigners who are critical of the host country6. Do not always say critical things about host culture7. Keep a good sense of humor8. Find another foreig

46、ner who knows the host culture9. Make friends with people from the host culture10. Think about that you wont lose your own culture11. Keep yourself busy and active12. If you feel fatigued, take a little vacation13. Prepare a presentation about your own culture11.Why does projected cultural similarit

47、y cause intercultural communication problems？ From the aspect of PCS, people just assume people from other cultures view things the same way we do. What we think is right, we consider others will think it is right, too. However, it just doesnt work out like that. Because of different cultural backgr

48、ound, we have different interpretations of everything happened. we can not expect others to think or act the same as we do. We should be careful about checking assumptions so that many conflicts and misunderstandings can be avoided.12.Do unto others what you would  have them do unto you Project

49、ed cultural similarity The sentence means that its better not to do things to others what you dont want others do to you. This behavior shows the phenomenon “Projected cultural similarity”. In our cultural system, if you dont like thing done to you, you just dont impose on others. Its a kind of virt

50、ue. But from the aspect of PCS, people just assume people from other cultures view things the same way we do. What we think is right, we consider others will think it is right, too. However, it just doesnt work out like that. Because of different cultural background, we have different interpretation

51、s of everything happened. we can not expect others to think or act the same as we do. We should be careful about checking assumptions so that many conflicts and misunderstandings can be avoided.13.Conformity in western cultures loose culture、tight cultureOne interesting aspect of culture is the degr

52、ee to which its members expect everyone to conform, to all think and act in similar ways. Some scholars divide cultures into two broad categories, “loose” and “tight”. “Loose ” cultures do not demand a high degree of conformity. In loose cultures, people have a relatively wide range of views as to w

53、hat is considered normal behavior. “Tight” cultures, in contrast, expect a relatively high degree of conformity. There is a clear consensus as to what is and is not acceptable behavior, and there is more pressure on people to conform to the norms of the cultures. On many important social issues and

54、ideas, Western societies have a lower degree of consensus than Chinese society do. Furthermore, while Westerners may disagree violently with each other over such issues, they tend to be relatively comfortable living in a society where theres disagreement over these issues. This may cause some diffic

55、ulty for Chinese may expect Westerners to be more uniform in their beliefs, values, and ideas than is in fact the case. Chinese culture is tight culture, and western cultures are loose cultures. So conformity in western cultures is less than it in Chinese culture.14.What factors contribute to loosen

56、ess or tightness in culture？ loose culture、tight culture1. The degree of change in the population-the more people move, the more loose and individualist a society tends to be2. The density of the population-small dense societies tend to be collectivist, hence tighter. Large dense society tend to be

57、more complex, hence not quite so tight-melting pot3. The number of choices available in society-the more choices available, the more room there is for individualism4.The degree of conformity of one country-the more conformity there is, the more tight and vice versa(反之亦然).15.What are the similarity a

58、nd difference between “Projected Cultural Similarity” and “Ethnocentrism”? Projected Cultural Similarity、EthnocentrismThe similarity: both of them can not be avoided or overcame in intercultural communication. These two phenomena will often happen in cultures.They can be obstacles during the exchange of different cultures.Difference: Ethnocentrism is taking one's own culture norms as the standard by which to judge people of other cultures. It is terrible and sometimes even does harm to people from other cultures. Projected c