应用语言学知识点总结

1、学习必备欢迎下载Josy lee 教材课程is established, an internal link is built up even when the应用语言学复习知识点总结third thing is not present.Mowrer s theory: a word is a conditioned stimulus whilethe thing to which the word refers is the unconditionedChapter 4 first language acquisitionstimulus.Differences between Saussur

2、e and ChomskyOsgoods theory:three-stagemeditationalmodel:Saussuresobjectiveistodescribethelanguagesensory, representational and integrational.system(langue),but parole is an individual act. Saussure ismore concerned with itssociological aspect.Chomskys objective is to characterize the native speaker

3、s knowledge of the system of his language (competence). Chomsky is more concerned with itspsychological aspect.2. Cognitive theoriesThese theories follow the rationalist approach, being more concern with the actual linguistic-processing abilities of the individual.Objective: to the discovery of new

4、kinds of mental events.1) Nativist theories( the innateness hypothesis)How is the first language acquired?Traditional assumption: imitation and practiceChomskys creative hypothesis-testing-language acquisition is based on the child sdiscovery of a deep and abstract theory-a generative grammar of his

5、 language(child hear all kinds of utterance, but he choose only what fits his needs. His own utterances (performance)are original and novel.)The deepest structure of all language may be the same-Universal Grammar(UG)in Chomsky stheory.This is lied by Chomsky.Basic idea : the child is born with the b

6、iological basic forthe acquisition of language, which enables them to develop a grammar that will incorporate all thecommon feature of human language.Chomsky call this as Universal Grammar(UG) and claim the existence of “black English”which he calls as Language Acquisition Device(LAD).McNeil constru

7、cted the hypothetical grammar of child language(pivot grammer).Major L1 acquisition theories-the process of L1acquisition1,Behaviorist theories :These theories follow the empiricist approach, emphasizing that the only way of knowing anything is by experiencing it physically.Basic tenet 原则 : since on

8、e cannot observe his internal states, which is regarded as a “black box ”,hence one can not know anything about them, any statements about the internal states or process are meaningless. The only meaningful statements about the organism concern what goes into it(stimulus)and what comes out of it(res

9、ponse). Objective : is to discover and create predictable relationship/association between stimulus and response.1) imitation-reinforcement theories - skinnerBasic idea:verbal behavior, like other human behaviors, is controlled by its consequences. In the process of first language acquisition, if a

10、certain correct response is repeatedly reinforced, it is conditioned and becomes a habit, then finally the child acquires his native language.2) mediation theories-to fill the “blackbox”Basic ideal : two thing connecting with a third thing tendto be in associating with each other. One the associatio

11、nThis theory account for aspects of meaning, the abstractness of language, and the creativity of child language.2) Cognitive theories 认知学派Chapter 5 second language learning The nature of second language learning1)Native-like proficiencythe goal of second language learningThree components of L2 profi

12、ciency :1) Grammatical competence: (i.e linguisticcompetence)vocabulary,pronunciation, grammatical structure and word form.2) Sociolinguisticcompetence:(i.ecommunicativecompetence)-socioculturalrules forusing languageappropriately, discourse rules for thinking parts of a language text coherently and

13、 cohesively.3) Strategic competence: (i.e L2 leaners ability to compensate for problem incommunication)verbal and non-verbal communication strategies.学习必备Major2learning theories-thenatureandprocess of L2 learning1. The interlanguage theoryDefinition: (Ronald Carte)is a transitional stage in learning

14、 a second or foreign language. language system bordering on the first language and the target language.Larry Selinkerfirst used this term to refer to “the attempted meaningful performance ”Corder explained: “is the collective name of second language learners versions of target languages and call it

15、transitional competence.Premises:1) the learner constructs a grammar, a system of abstract linguistic rules which underlies comprehension and production.2the learners grammar is permeable.3) The leanerscompetence is transitional.4) The learnersperformance is variable.5) Interlanguage development ref

16、lects cognitive learning strategies and communication strategies.6) The interlanguage system may fossilize.The principle characteristics:1) Interlanguage system is “reduced” or “simplified” system and have “restricted functions”.2) Interlanguage system is dynamic.2. Monitor theory -the laws governin

17、g L2acquisitionDeveloped by S. Krashen and contain five hypothesis1)The acquisitionlearning hypothesis(the mostfundamental of all the five )Basic idea:adult have two independent ways ofdeveloping competence in a second language-language acquisition and languagelearning. The former is subconscious pr

18、ocess and latter is conscious process.2)The monitor hypothesisBasicidea: acquisition and learning are used in very specific ways. Normally, acquisition “initiates”our utterances and be responsible for our fluency. Learning act as a Monitor and Editor in L2 language learning.Three conditions for moni

19、toring: Thus, conscious learning play a limited role in L2 performance and only three conditions are met may be it used.- 1)having time 2)Focusing on欢迎下载form 3)Knowing the rule3)The natural order hypothesisBasic idea : there is a predictable, natural order for the acquisition of grammatical structur

20、es in a second language.Average order(English as a second language)：ING(progressive)/PLURAL/COPULA(“tobe”)-AULILIARY(progressive, as in “he is going”)/ARTICLE(a,the)-Irregular past-regularpast/iii singular/possessiveThreerequirementforpresentingrules:Learnable/portable/not yet acquired4)The input hy

21、pothesis-how we acquire languageBasic idea : learnersacquire language as sa result of comprehending input addressed to them. we acquire L2 by understanding language that contain structure a bit beyond our current level of competence. (i+1) Once our communication is successful and the input is unders

22、tood, the production emerges.分类： premodified input: is material that is finely tuned in advance to the learnerscurrent level.Interactively modified input: is material (usually spoken discourse)that is modified when the teacher and the learner interact.-结论：课堂有其重要性， 因为能大量提供INPIT5)Theaffectivefilterhyp

23、othesis-therelationship between affective filter and the second language acquisitionBasic idea : L2 acquirers vary with respect to the strength or level of their affective filters. While he claims that the input plays the primary role in L2 acquisition and the filter affective variables act to imped

24、e or facilitate the delivery of input to the language acquisition device.Summary of Monitor Theories-1)Acquisition is more important that learning2)two conditions to acquire a second language Comprehensible input(a bit beyond the) A low or weak affective filter5)The creative construction modelDevelo

25、ped by M. Burt and H. Dulay and based on Chomskyslinguistic theory of “creative aspect of language use”Basic idea : refers to a process in which the learners gradually reconstruct rules for speech they学习必备hear, guided by their innate mechanisms which cause them to formulate certain types of hypothes

26、is about the language system being acquired, utile the mismatch between what they are exposed to and what they produced is resolved.It propose the internal creativity mechanism图：the language environment provides the input for mental processing and the leaners verbal performance is the output. Three

27、processing mechanism is involved.Affective filterLanguage learners do not take in everything they hear. The affective filters, like motivation, self-confidence and anxiety, controls the entry of input.Cognitive organizerIt responsible for the leaner s gradual organization of the new language system.

28、Linguistic monitorIt responsible for a kind of self-editing process by which learners are concerned about linguistic forms, using conscious rules to produce sentences.Chapter 9 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis Contrastive AnalysisBasic idea:by the comparison and contrast of two or more langua

29、ge to determine the differences and similarities of two language, and the ultimate goal is to identify the difficulties of L2learning. (or to predicate what area will be easy and what will be difficult.)Theoreticalbases-behaviorismandstructuralismBasic assumption :1)L2 learning involves overcoming d

30、ifficulties in the linguistic systems of the target language.(Grass and Selinker)欢迎下载2)the main difficulties in L2 learning are caused by interference from the L1.3)CA can predict or account for difficulties in L2 learning.4)CA can reduce the difficulties and facilitate L2 learning.Major object : pr

31、oviding insight into similarities and difficulties.Predicating problems in L2 learning. Developing course materials for languagetaching.Error AnalysisBasic idea: Corderclaimed EA is a type of bilingual comparison, a comparison between learners interlanguage and the target language system. It is a me

32、thodology of describing L2 learner slanguage system. Two justification: to understanding the nature of errors and to eradicate them. / is necessary to an understanding of the process of second language acquisition.对比： CA aimed to predicate errors resulting from L1, which failed to account for other

33、types of errors. While EA compare the learner sinterlanguage and the target language.Tow Source of errors:Interlingual errors(transfer errors): it occurs when learner misuse an item because it shares some features with an item in the native language.Intralingualerrors(developmentalerrors):errorswith

34、inthetargetlanguageitself.OVERGENERALIZATIONTypes of errors :ProcessofEA:学习必备Recognition-Description-ExplanationExplanation: the source of errors: interlingual transfer(the interference of the first language) / Intralingual transfer(overgeneration of the rules of the target languge)Two issues:Fossil

35、ization : the relatively permanent incorporation of incorrect linguistic forms into a personssecond language competence.Pidginization : refers to the process by which a pidgin develops. The learner instinctively attempts to bring two languages together, which results in aspects of both.Chapter 11 La

36、nguage Testing TestE. Ingran“a test is a measuring device which we use when we want to compare an individuals who belong to the same group”Brown - “a test is a method of measuring a personsability or knowledge in a given area”.Requirements foragood testvalidity,reliability, discrimination and practi

37、cality.1 , Validity: the most important requirement. It refers to the degree to which a test measures what it is meant to measure, or can be used successfully for the purposes for which it is intended.Face validity, content validity, construct validity, empirical vality.Face validity : 外行人 it refers

38、 to the degree to which a test appears to measure the abilities or knowledge it claims to measure, based on the subjective judgment. It ssuperficial.Content validity :内行人 it refers to the degree to which a test adequately and sufficiently measures the particular skills or behavior it sets out to mea

39、sure.Construct validity : 能力的测试 It assumes the existence of certain learning theories or constructs which underlie the acquisition of abilities and skills. Thus it refers to the degree to which the items in a test reflect the essential aspects of the theory( the construct) on which the test is based

40、. Eg: 英语语言能力的测试（听说读写译）Bachman : it is concerned with the extent to which欢迎下载performance on tests is consistent with prediction that we make on the basis of a theory of abilities or constructs.Empirical ValidityBasic idea : measure the validity of a test by comparing the test with one or more criteri

41、on measures. It contains two ways: concurrent validity(comparing the test with other valid tests at the same time) and predictive validity(comparing the test with other valid tests or other performance criteria obtained at a later time). The only difference is time.2 , Reliability - stability and co

42、nsistency of testscoresValidity ensures the meaningfulness of a test, reliability ensures its consistency. It is a measure of the degree to which a test gives consistent results. A test is reliable, if it meets the above fourconditions :1)a test is given to a group of students on different occasions

43、2)two parallel forms of the test are given tom the same group on different occasions3)the test is scored by the same scorer on different occasions4)the test is scored by two or more competent scorers.Four factors affect the reliability:1) the extent of the sample material selected for testing-the bi

44、gger, the more reliable2) the administration of the test: 同一考试在不同的时间，不同对象下结果相同。3) scoring the test4) test instructions:考试相关要求5) personal factorthree ways to measure reliability:1)test-retest reliability 相同的考试在不同时间考2)parallel reliability- 几个 parallel tests给同一对象3)split-half reliability- 一场考试分为两半执行Type

45、s of language test1 , Tests distinguished by useAchievement tests, or attainment tests结业考试(特别是课程考试 )Aims to measure how much of a language the learner has learned with reference to a particular course of study or program of instruction.学习必备Proficiency tests 能力考试过级考试“四六级”没有教科书的，Aims to measure how mu

46、ch of a language the learner knows with reference to a particular task which he will be required to perform.区别： The A test looks back on what should have been learned from a particular course or syllabus. While the P test looks forward, measuring the leaners general level of language mastery. The di

47、fference lies in the way they are prepared and interpreted.Aptitude tests 学能考试（还没学过的语言）It is designed to measure the leaners probable performance in a second language which he has not started to learn, assessing his aptitude for learning a language and predicting his probable strengths and weakness

48、in learning a second language.区别： the P test is took place at some point after learning has started and relating the leaners linguistic knowledge to future non-linguistic performance.The Ap test is took place before learning aL2 and aims to predict the learner s inherent aptitude for language learni

49、ng.Diagnostic testsIt is designed to show what skills or knowledge learners do not know and to diagnose their areas of difficulties, to enable teacher to identify areas of problem so as to plan the most appropriate remedial program.Placement tests分班考试It is designed to place learners at an appropriat

50、e level in a program or course or to sort new students into approximately teaching groups so that they can start a course or a program at proximately the same level.2, distinguished by standard for measuring Criterion-reference tests标准参照 (有及格线的 )It measure a student sperformance according to a parti

51、cular external criterion which has been agreed upon. He must reach this level of performance in order to be admitted.Norm- reference tests 常模参照 (以考试的人群为依据 , 有录取比例 )It measures the performance of a student or a group of students comparing with the performance of other students whose scores are used a

52、s a norm.欢迎下载区别： the major difference between these two types of T is the standard used. The scores in the former test in interpreted with reference to the criterion that is generally agreed, while the score in the latter test is interpreted in the reference to the behavior of other students, which

53、is set up as a norm.Interpreting test resultMeasure of central tendency-median中位数 ,arithmetic mean平均数 , mode 众数，range范围，standard deviation（ SD）标准差 ,variance 方差，percentile ranks(or scales)百分位排位SD-whether the distribution of a score is normal.SD= 1/N * (xi-x 平 )2PR-it indicates the position of a given

54、 score in adistribution divide into 100 ranks. The higher the PR is, the better one is in the test.Chapter 11 linguistics and syllabus designA clarification of Term: syllabus and curriculum区： in some sense, syllabus is part of a curriculum Syllabus :is specification of what takes place in the classr

55、oom, which usually contains the aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodologyCurriculum :provides1) general statement about the rationale of language, language learning and language teaching.2) Detailed specification of aims, objectives and targets learning purpose3

56、) Implementation of a programOther difference:Syllabus used to refer something similar to a language teaching approach-more pedagogical Curriculum refers to a specific document of a language program developed for a particular country or region.-educational planning issue.Theoretical Views behind syllabu