环境与可持续发展第二章

1、Chapter2: Ecosystems and Sustainability生态环境与可持续发展New words and Phrasescommunity (群居体)ecosystem (生态系统)troposphere (对流层)stratosphere (平流层)hydrosphere (水圈)lithosphere(岩石圈)biosphere (生物圈)photosynthesis(光合作用)aerobic respiration (有氧呼吸)producer (生产者)consumer (消费者)decomposer (分解者)food chain(食物链)food web(食物网

2、)primary consumer(初级消费者)secondary consumer (次级消费者)tertiary (higher-level) consumers (三级消费者)pyramid of energy flow(能量流金字塔)pyramid of biomass (生物量金字塔)pyramid of numbers (数量金字塔)hydrologic cycle (水文循环)carbon cycle(碳循环)nitrogen cycle (氮循环)phosphorus cycle(磷循环)sulfur cycle (硫循环)1 The nature of ecologyEcol

3、ogy is a study of the connections(联系)among organisms (生物体) and their living and nonliving（非生命的） environment. 生物学是一门研究生物体之间、生物体与周围生命与非生命环境之间的联系的学科。Organisms may reproduce（繁殖）by asexual reproduction(无性生殖) or sexual reproduction(有性繁殖).生物体通过有性繁殖或无性繁殖来进行繁衍。 Organisms that reproduce sexually are classifie

4、d(被分类) as members of the same species if they can interbreed(杂交). Members of a species that reside（居住） in the same area at the same time constitute（组成） a population（种群）. A population normally lives in a particular（独特的） habitat. Populations of many species make up a community（群落）. An ecosystem is a c

5、ommunity and its nonliving environment. 能够相互杂交且通过有性繁殖的生物被归为同一类物种。同一时间生活在同一地区的物种组成一个种群。一个种群往往生活在一个独特的栖息地。多个物种组成一个群落。生态环境即群落以及他们周围的非生物环境。Community (群居体) Populations of all species living and interacting in an area at a particular time. 在一个固有的时间段共同生活且相互产生联系的所有种群。Ecosystem (生态系统) Community of different

6、species interacting（相互作用）with one another and with the chemical and physical factors making up its nonliving environment. 由相互产生联系的不同物种所构成的群落以及周围非生物环境所包含的物理、化学因素。2 The Earths life-support systems保障地球生命的系统Troposphere (对流层)Innermost（最中心的）layer of the atmosphere. It contains about 75% of the mass of ear

7、th's air and extends（延伸）about 17 kilometers (11 miles) above sea level. Compare stratosphere.大气层中最靠近地面的部分。包含了75%的大气成分，并且从海平面延伸到了海拔17km。 Stratosphere (平流层) Second layer of the atmosphere, extending about 17-48 kilometers (11-30 miles) above the earth's surface. It contains small amounts of ga

8、seous（气态的）ozone (O3), which filters（过滤）out about 95% of the incoming harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation emitted（散发）by the sun. Compare troposphere.大气层中第二靠近地表的部分，遍布于地表上空17-48km。其中一小部分为气态的臭氧，它能过滤大约95%来自太阳的有害紫外线辐射。 Hydrosphere (水圈)The earth's （1）liquid water (oceans, lakes, other bodies of surface

9、water, and underground water), （2）frozen water (polar ice caps, floating ice caps, and ice in soil, known as permafrost), and （3）small amounts of water vapor（蒸汽）in the atmosphere. See also hydrologic cycle. 地球上的1.液态水（海洋、湖泊、其它形式的地表水以及地下水）。2.冰冻水（极地冰川、浮冰、冻土内的冰永久性的冰）。3.大气中的少量水蒸气。Lithosphere(岩石圈) Outer s

10、hell of the earth, composed（构成）of the crust（地壳）and the rigid（坚固的）outermost part of the mantle(地幔) outside the asthenosphere（上地幔）; material found in earth's plates（版块）. See crust, mantle. 地球的外壳，由地壳和上地幔以外坚固的表层地幔组成；地球板块中的物质。Biosphere (生物圈)Zone of earth where life is found. It consists of parts of t

11、he atmosphere (the troposphere), hydrosphere (mostly surface water and groundwater), and lithosphere (mostly soil and surface rocks and sediments（沉积物）on the bottoms（底部）of oceans and other bodies of water) where life is found. Sometimes called the ecosphere.地球上有生物的区域。由部分大气层（对流层）、水圈（大部分地表水和地下水）、岩石圈（绝大

12、部分为海洋和其他水体底部的土壤、表层岩以及沉积物）。The lower portion（底部） of the earth's atmosphere is the troposphere. The next layer is the stratosphere. The portions of the earth's atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere in which living organisms exist constitute the biosphere. Life on the earth is sustained（维持）b

13、y three interconnected（相互关联）factors: the one-way flow（单向流动）of energy from the sun through the biosphere and back into space, the cycling of matter（物质循环）that living organisms need as nutrients for their survival, and gravity. 地球上的生命由三种相互关联的因素维持：1.从太阳到生物圈再到宇宙的能量单向流动。2.生物体之间的物质循环（生物赖以生存的营养物质）。3.重力。3 Ec

14、osystem concepts and components生态系统的概念和组成3.1 Ecosystem concepts概念3.2 Ecosystem components组成Biologists have classified the terrestrial（陆生的）portion of the biosphere into biomes(生物群落). Each has a distinct（明显的）climate and specific life forms. Marine（海洋的） and freshwater portions of the biosphere are divi

15、ded into aquatic（水生的）life zones(水生生物区 ).生物学家们把生物圈中陆生生物归类于生物群落。每个生物群落都有明显的气候和独特的生物形式。生物圈中的海洋生物和淡水生物被归类为水生生物。 3.2 Ecosystem components3.2.1 Abiotic components(非生物成分 )Abiotic components of an ecosystem are physical and chemical factors that influence living organisms. Each population has a range（范围）of

16、tolerance（耐受性）to various abiotic factors and its tolerance limits determine its abundance（充裕度）and distribution（分布）. The number of organisms in a population can be affected by a single limiting factor. 生态系统中的非生物成分即周围环境中影响生物的物理、化学因素。每一个种群都对周围非生物环境具有一定的适应能力，这个适应能力取决于种群的数量和分布。种群中的生物数量会被任何一个单一的限制因素影响。3.2

17、.2 Biotic components (生物成分 )Producers(autotrophs（自养生物）)Producer (生产者)Organism that uses solar energy (green plant) or chemical energy (some bacteria) to manufacture（生产）the organic（有机的）compounds（化合物）it needs as nutrients from simple inorganic compounds obtained（获得）from its environment. Compare consum

18、er, decomposer. 把从环境中获取的简单无机物化合物利用太阳能（植物）或者化学能（某些细菌）来转换成自身所需的有机化合物的生物。Photosynthesis(光合作用) Complex（复杂的）process that takes place in cells of green plants. Radiant（辐射的）energy from the sun is used to combine（结合）carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) to produce oxygen (O2) and carbohydrates（碳水化合物）(such as

19、 glucose, C6H12O6) and other nutrient molecules. Compare aerobic respiration, chemosynthesis（化合作用）. 在绿色植物细胞中发生的复杂过程。利用太阳能将二氧化碳、水合成氧气和碳水化合物（例如葡萄糖）和其它营养分子。Consumers(heterotrophs（异养生物）)Consumer (消费者)Organism that cannot synthesize（合成） the organic nutrients it needs and gets its organic nutrients by fee

20、ding on the tissues（组织）of producers or of other consumers; generally divided into primary consumers (herbivores（食草动物）), secondary consumers (carnivores（肉食动物）), tertiary (higher-level) consumers, and so on. In economics, one who uses economic goods.不能自身合成所需有机物，靠吞食其它生产者或消费者来获取所需养分的生物。一般分成了初级消费者（食草动物）、

21、次级消费者（肉食动物）和更高层面的消费者等等。在经济学中，即消费经济商品的人。Aerobic respiration (有氧呼吸)Complex process that occurs in the cells of most living organisms, in which nutrient organic molecules such as glucose (C6H12O6) combine with oxygen (O2) and produce carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O), and energy. Compare photosynthesis

22、. 在绝大多数生物的细胞内会发生的复杂过程，在此期间有机物分子（葡萄糖等）与氧气结合并生成二氧化碳和水，并且释放能量。DecomposersDecomposer (分解者) Organism that digests（消化吸收）parts of dead organisms and cast-off（废弃的）fragments（碎片）and wastes of living organisms by breaking down the complex organic molecules in those materials into simpler inorganic compounds an

23、d then absorbing the soluble（可溶的）nutrients. Decomposers return most of these chemicals to the soil and water for reuse. Decomposers consist of various bacteria and fungi（真菌）. Compare consumer, detritivore（食腐者）, producer.通过腐化其它死亡生物的肢体以及残骸、分解其营养分子并吸收分解产生的无机物和可溶性营养物质的生物。分解者会将绝大部分化学物质返回到土壤和水里，提供再循环的条件。一

24、般由细菌和真菌组成。Most producers capture（吸收）sunlight energy and make carbohydrates by way of photosynthesis. Some producers carry out chemosynthesis（化合作用）. All other organisms in an ecosystem are consumers or heterotrophs(异养).多数生产者都通过光合作用来吸收太阳能、合成碳水化合物。部分生产者发生化合作用。其他的生物体均为消费者或异养生物。 Most organisms release（释放

25、）energy by aerobic respiration, which requires oxygen. Some get energy by anaerobic respiration（无氧呼吸）. 多数生物体通过需要消耗氧气的有氧呼吸释放能量，其他的则通过无氧呼吸。 Biological diversity is an important renewable resource. 4 Food webs and energy flow in ecosystems生态系统中的食物网和能量流动4.1 Food chains and food webs食物链和食物网Organisms get

26、the food and nutrients they need by participating in a food chain. Various food chains can link（连接）together to form a food web. 生物体作为食物链中的一部分来获取食物和养分。各种食物链可以相互连接组成食物网。Food chain(食物链) Series of organisms in which each eats or decomposes（分解）the preceding（前面的）one. Compare food web. 一系列捕食或分解前者的生物体Food w

27、eb(食物网) Complex network of many interconnected food chains and feeding relationships. Compare food chain. 由食物链和捕食关系所组成的复杂的网络结构。4.2 Trophic levels(营养水平 )Each organism in an ecosystem can be assigned to a trophic（营养有关的）level in its food chain or food web. Each trophic level contains a certain amount o

28、f biomass（生物体）. The transfer（转移）of energy between these levels has a certain ecological efficiency. 生态系统中的每个生物体都可以被划分到食物链或者食物网中的一个营养等级。每个营养等级都包含有一定的生物量。这些营养等级之间的能量转化会产生具体的生物高效性。Primary consumer(初级消费者)Organism that feeds on all or part of plants (herbivore) or on other producers. Compare detritivore（

29、肉食动物）, omnivore（杂食动物）, secondary consumer. 食用全部或部分植物（食草动物）或其他生产者的生物体。 Secondary consumer (次级消费者) Organism that feeds only on primary consumers. Compare detritivore, omnivore, primary consumer. 只捕食初级消费者的生物体。Tertiary (higher-level) consumers (三级消费者)Animals that feed on animal-eating animals. They feed

30、 at high trophic（营养相关的） levels in food chains and webs. Examples are hawks（鹰）, lions, bass（鲈鱼）, and sharks. Compare detritivore, primary consumer, secondary consumer. 捕食食肉动物的生物体。它们处于食物链和食物网的高阶营养等级。例如鹰、鲈鱼、鲨鱼等。 4.3 Ecological efficiency生态高效性 Pyramid of energy flow能量流动金字塔Food chains can be represented（

31、代表）as a pyramid of energy flow. Biomass storage（储存）in various trophic levels of a food chain or webs can be represented by a pyramid of biomass. The number of organisms at each trophic level in a food chain or web can be represented by a pyramid of numbers. 食物链可以用能量流动金字塔来表示。被储存在食物链和食物网各个营养等级的生物物质可以用

32、生物物质金字塔来表示。食物链和食物网中各个营养等级的生物量可以用生物量金字塔来表示。Pyramid of biomass物质金字塔Pyramid of energy flow(能量流动金字塔)Diagram representing the flow of energy through each trophic level in a food chain or food web. With each energy transfer, only a small part (typically（代表性的）10%) of the usable energy entering one trophic

33、level is transferred to the organisms at the next trophic level. Compare pyramid of biomass, pyramid of numbers. 表示食物链和食物网中各个营养等级的能量流动的图表。随着能量的转化，只有很少一部分（一般10%）可用能量从一个营养等级的生物体中转化到了下一个营养等级的生物体中。Pyramid of biomass (生物量金字塔) Diagram representing the biomass, or total dry weight of all living organisms,

34、that can be supported at each trophic level in a food chain or food web. See pyramid of energy flow, pyramid of numbers.表示食物链和食物网中各个营养等级的的生物物质或者总的脱水物质量的图表。 Pyramid of numbers (数量金字塔)Diagram representing the flow of energy through each trophic level in a food chain or food web. With each energy trans

35、fer, only a small part (typically 10%) of the usable energy entering one trophic level is transferred to the organisms at the next trophic level. Compare pyramid of biomass, pyramid of numbers. 表示食物链和食物网中各个营养等级的能量流动的图表。随着能量的转化，只有很少一部分（一般10%）由一个营养等级转化到了下一个营养等级。5 Matter cycling in ecosystems5.1 Hydrol

36、ogic cycle (H2O)Hydrologic cycle (水文循环)Biogeochemical cycle that collects,purifies（净化）and distributes（分布）the earths fixed supply of water from the environment to living organisms and then back to the environment . 在环境到生物体、生物体到环境的过程中收集、净化和分配地球上的水资源的生物地理化学性循环。5.2 Atmospheric cycles (C, N)大气循环5.2.1 Car

37、bon cycles (C)碳循环Carbon cycle(碳循环) Cyclic movement of carbon in different chemical forms from the environment to organisms and then back to the environment. 不同形式的碳从环境到生物体、生物体再到环境的循环。5.2.1-A The carbon cycle (Terrestrial(陆地)5.2.1-B The carbon cycle (Aquatic)5.2.2 Nitrogen cycles (N)Nitrogen cycle (氮循

38、环) Cyclic movement of nitrogen in different chemical forms from the environment to organisms and then back to the environment. 不同形式的氮从环境到生物体、生物体再到环境的循环。5.3 Sedimentary cycles (P, S)Nutrients, atoms（原子）, ions（离子）, and molecules are continuously（持续的）cycled in nutrient cycles or biogeochemical（生物地球化学的）

39、cycles. The hydrologic cycle collects, purifies, and distributes the earth's water. Other examples are the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, the phosphorus（含磷）cycle, and the sulfur（含硫） cycle. Human activities are altering these cycles. 养分、原子和离子以及分子在营养物质循环或者生物地球化学循环中的持续循环。水圈收集、净化和分配地球水资源。其他例子还有碳循

40、环氮循环磷循环和硫循环。人类活动会改变这些循环。5.3.1 Phosphorus cycle (磷循环)Phosphorus cycle(磷循环)Cyclic movement of phosphorus in different chemical forms from the environment to organisms and then back to the environment. 不同形式的磷从环境到生物体、生物体再到环境的循环。5.3.2 Sulfur cycle (硫循环) Sulfur cycle (硫循环) Cyclic movement of sulfur in dif

41、ferent chemical forms from the environment to organisms and then back to the environment. 不同形式的硫从环境到生物体、生物体再到环境的循环。6 Ecosystem studiesHow do ecologists learn about ecosystems? Ecologists use field research（野外调研）and laboratory research（室内试验）to gather data. They use systems analysis to develop mathema

42、tical models that simulate（模仿）ecosystems and generate predictions（预言）. How do ecologists learn about ecosystems?Field research(实地研究)Remote sensing(遥感)Geographic information systems (GIS) (地理信息系统)Laboratory researchSystems analysis7 Ecosystem services and sustainability Ecosystems provide ecosystem services that sustain all species (including humans) and economics. A sustainable society lives off the biological income provided by these ecological services but does no