电大西方经济学第三次任务小抄参考

1、答：消费理论是研究消费影响因素的理论。消费受许多因素的影响，其中最重要的影响因素是收入，一般把消费与收入之间的数量关系称为消费函数，消费理论主要就是通过对消费函数的研究，分析消费与收入之间的变动关系。消费理论主要有四种收入理论： 1.凯恩斯的绝对收入理论将消费函数公式表达为：cf（y），如果将此式改写为cby，表明如果其他条件不变，则消费c随收入y增加而增加，而随收入y减少而减少。他强调实际消费支出是实际收入的稳定函数，这里所说的实际收入是指现期、绝对、实际的收入水平，即本期收入、收入的绝对水平和按货币购买力计算的收入。2.杜森贝的相对收入理论，提出消费并不取决于现期绝对收入水平，而取决于“相

2、对收入”水平，相对收入水平有两种：相对于其他人的收入，消费的行为是互相影响的，自身消费会受他人收入水平影响，一般称为“示范”或“攀比”效应。另一种是相对于本人的历史最高水平，指收入降低后，消费不一定马上就会降低，一般称为“习惯效应”。3.莫迪利安尼的生命周期理论，提出消费不取决于现期收入，而取决于一生的收入和财产收入，其消费函数公式为：cawrbyl，式中wr为财产收入，yl为劳动收入，a、b分别为财产收入、劳动收入的边际消费倾向。他根据这一原理分析出人一生劳动收入和消费关系：人在工作期间的每年收入yl，不能全部用于消费，总有一部分要用于储蓄，从参加工作起到退休止，储蓄一直增长，到工作期最后一

3、年时总储蓄达最大，从退休开始，储蓄一直在减少，到生命结束时储蓄为零。还分析出消费和财产的关系：财产越多和取得财产的年龄越大，消费水平越高。 4.弗里德曼的持久收入理论，认为居民消费不取决于现期收入的绝对水平，也不取决于现期收入和以前最高收入的关系，而是取决于居民的持久收入，即在相当长时间里可以得到的收入。他认为只有持久收入才能影响人们的消费，消费是持久收入的稳定函数，即：clbyl，表明持久收入yl 增加，持久消费（长期确定的有规律的消费）cl 也增加，但消费随收入增加的幅度取决于边际消费倾向b，b值越大cl 增加越多，b值越小cl 增加越少。持久收入理论和生命周期理论相结合构成现代消费理论，

4、这两种收入理论不是互相排斥的，而是基本一致的，互相补充的。基于上述几种消费理论，在我国当前经济形势下，扩大消费需求可从以下几方面着手：首先是经济的持续发展，发展好经济的各项政策。经济发展，国民收入才会增加，人们的绝对收入就能能增加，消费水平也会提高，从而提高消费需求。持续稳定的经济发展，人们可以获得持续稳定的收入增加，持久消费才会持久。二是在国民经济不断发展、社会生产效率不断提高的前提下，制定适宜的劳动报酬政策。当前所执行的“最低工资制度”，推行的“年薪制”等均有利于劳动者收入的增加，进而推动消费的扩大，产生积极的“示范效应”。三是继续推行有效的信贷措施。前几年几次降低利率，对减少储蓄，增加消

5、费，扩大需求起到了积极的作用，但效果不明显。目前的各种个人消费贷款，相对增加了人们的本期收入，扩大了住房、汽车和耐用消费品的需求。但应注意引导人们在贷款消费时，做到量入为出和预期收入有保证，否则将来对个人和社会都会带来诸多不利问题。四是积极发展老年经济。随着社会进步、科技发展和生活水平提高，人们的平均寿命越来越长，我国已开始进入“老龄化”。针对这一现状，借鉴生命周期理论，在不断完善社会保障制度，保证和提高老年人收入的同时，积极发展老年经济，促进老年人的消费，使之成为扩大消费需求有效手段。五是扩大就业面。要千方百计创造就业机会，扩大就业面；特别要针对目前结构调整和企业改制所带来的下岗失业人员多的

6、现状，制订优惠政策，指导和帮肋其实现再就业，更要鼓励和扶持其自谋职业，以保证更多的人有稳定持久的收入，促使社会消费水平的提高，扩大消费需求。winger tuivasa-sheck, who scored two tries in the kiwis 20-18 semi-final win over england, has been passed fit after a lower-leg injury, while slater has been named at full-back but is still recovering from a knee injury aggravate

7、d against usa.both sides boast 100% records heading into the encounter but australia have not conceded a try since josh charnleys effort in their first pool match against england on the opening day.aussie winger jarryd hayne is the competitions top try scorer with nine, closely followed by tuivasa-s

8、heck with eight.but it is recently named rugby league international federation player of the year sonny bill williams who has attracted the most interest in the tournament so far.the kiwi - with a tournament high 17 offloads - has the chance of becoming the first player to win the world cup in both

9、rugby league and rugby union after triumphing with the all blacks in 2011.id give every award back in a heartbeat just to get across the line this weekend, said williams.the (lack of) air up there watch mcayman islands-based webb, the head of fifas anti-racism taskforce, is in london for the footbal

10、l associations 150th anniversary celebrations and will attend citys premier league match at chelsea on sunday.i am going to be at the match tomorrow and i have asked to meet yaya toure, he told bbc sport.for me its about how he felt and i would like to speak to him first to find out what his experie

11、nce was.uefa hasopened disciplinary proceedings against cskafor the racist behaviour of their fans duringcitys 2-1 win.michel platini, president of european footballs governing body, has also ordered an immediate investigation into the referees actions.cska said they were surprised and disappointed

12、by toures complaint. in a statement the russian side added: we found no racist insults from fans of cska. baumgartner the disappointing news: mission aborted.the supersonic descent could happen as early as sunda.the weather plays an important role in this mission. starting at the ground, conditions

13、have to be very calm - winds less than 2 mph, with no precipitation or humidity and limited cloud cover. the balloon, with capsule attached, will move through the lower level of the atmosphere (the troposphere) where our day-to-day weather lives. it will climb higher than the tip of mount everest (5

14、.5 miles/8.85 kilometers), drifting even higher than the cruising altitude of commercial airliners (5.6 miles/9.17 kilometers) and into the stratosphere. as he crosses the boundary layer (called the tropopause),e can expect a lot of turbulence.待添加的隐藏文字内容3the balloon will slowly drift to the edge of

15、space at 120,000 feet ( then, i would assume, he will slowly step out onto something resembling an olympic diving platform.they blew it in 2008 when they got caught cold in the final and they will not make the same mistake against the kiwis in manchester.five years ago they cruised through to the fi

16、nal and so far history has repeated itself here - the last try they conceded was scored by englands josh charnley in the opening game of the tournament.that could be classed as a weakness, a team under-cooked - but i have been impressed by the kangaroos focus in their games since then.they have been

17、 concentrating on the sort of stuff that wins you tough, even contests - strong defence, especially on their own goal-line, completing sets and a good kick-chase. theyve been great at all the unglamorous stuff that often goes unnoticed in the stands but not by your team-mates.it is as though their entire tournament has been preparation for the final.in johnathan thurston, cooper cronk, cameron smith and either billy slater or greg inglis at full-back they have a spine that is unmatched in rugby league. they have played in so many high-pressure games - a priceless asset goi