第三章形合与意合

1、第三章形合与意合；（HypotacticvsParatactic；所谓形合，指的是句中的词语或分句之间用语言形式手；所谓意合，指的是词语或分句之间不用语言形式手段连；一、英语的形合法；英语造句常用各种形式手段连接词、语、分句或从句，；1关系词和连接词；1）Allwasclearedupsometim；过了一些时候，从远方传来了消息：在小钢球坠落的当；2）第三章 形合与意合（ Hypotactic vsParatactic）所谓形合，指的是句中的词语或分句之间用语言形式手段（如关联词）连接起来，表达语法意义和逻辑关系。The American Heritage Dictionary给形合定义为，

2、“The dependent or subordinate or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don?t come.”英语造句主要采取形合（Hypotactic）。所谓意合，指的是词语或分句之间不用语言形式手段连接，句中的语法意义和逻辑关系通过词语或分句的含义表达。The World Book Dictionary给意合定义为：“The arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showi

3、ng the relation between themExample： The rain fell；the river flooded; the house washed away”汉语造句主要采用意合法（Parataxis）。一、英语的形合法英语造句常用各种形式手段连接词、语、分句或从句，注重显性接应（overt cohesion），注重句子形式，注重结构完整，注重以形显义。英语句中的连接手段和形式（cohesive ties）不仅数量大，种类多，而且用得十分频繁：1关系词和连接词。关系词包括关系代词、关系副词、连接代词和连接副词，如who，whom，whose，that，which，wh

4、at，when，where，why，how等，用来连接主句和定语从句、主语从句、宾语从句或表语从句。连接词包括并列连词和从属连词，如and，or，but， yet，so，however，as well as，（n）either?（n）or?及when，while，as，since，until，so?that，unless，lest等，用来连接词、词组、分句或状语从句。英语造句几乎离不开这些关系词和连接词，汉语则少用甚至不用这类词，如：1） All was cleared up some time later when news came from a distant place that an

5、 earthquake was felt the very day the little copper ball fell过了一些时候，从远方传来了消息：在小钢球坠落的当天，确实发生了地震。这一切终于得到了澄清。2）When I try to understand what it is that prevents so many Americans from being as happy as one might expect，it seems to me that there are two causes，of which one goes much deeper than the othe

6、r为什么如此众多的美国人不能如想象中那样幸福呢？我认为原因有二，而两者之间又有深浅之分。3）It had been a fine，golden autumn，a lovely farewell to those who would lose their youth， and some of them their lives，before the leaves turned again in a peacetime fall那是个天气晴朗、金黄可爱的秋天，美好的秋色为那些青年们送别。待到战后和平时期，黄叶纷飞的秋天再度来临时，当日的青年已经失去了青春，有的丧失了生命。4）It is flatte

7、ring to believe that they are too profound to be expressed so clearly that all who run may read，and very naturally it does not occur to such writers that the fault is with their own minds which have not the faculty of precise reflection（WSMaugham：Lucidity，Simplicity，Euphony）认为自己的思想深奥，不可能表达得很清楚，让任何人都

8、能理解，这是一种虚荣的念头。这样的作家当然不会想到，问题还是出在自己脑子缺乏精确思考的能力。5）It was what sentimentalists，who deal in very big words，call a yearning after the ideal， and simply means that women are not satisfied until they have husbands and children on whom they may center affections, which are spent elsewhere, as it were, in sm

9、all change.（WThackeray：Vanity Fair）一般情感主义者喜欢用大字眼，称之为对于理想爱情的渴望。换言之，他们认为女人的情感平时只能零星发泄，必须有了丈夫和孩子，情感收聚起来有了归宿，自己才能得到满足。2介词。介词包括简单介词(如with，to，in，of，about，between，through)、合成介词 (如inside，onto，upon，within，without，throughout)和成语介词 (如according to，along with，apart from，because of，in front of，on behalf of，with r

10、egard to)。根据GCurme统计，英语各类介词共约286个。介词是英语里最活跃的词类之一，是连接词、语或从句的重要手段。RBander指出：“ A preposition may be defined as a connecting word showing the relation of a noun or substitute for a noun to some other word the sentencePrepositions appear constantly in English speech and writingOver ninety percent of prep

11、osition usage involves these nine prepositions：with，to，from，at，in，of，by，for and on”英语造句几乎离不开介词，汉语则常常不用或省略介词：1)The many colors of a rainbow range from red on the outside to violet on the inside 彩虹有多种颜色，外圈红，内圈紫。2)He had a disconcerting habit of expressing contradictory ideas in rapid succession他有一种令人难

12、堪的习惯：一会儿一个看法，自相矛盾，变化无常。3)This was an intelligently organized and fervent meeting in a packed Town Hall, with MrStrong in the chair这是一次精心组织起来的会议。市政厅里济济一堂，热情洋溢，主持会议的是斯特朗先生。4)Power can be transmitted over a great distance with practically negligible loss if it is carried by an electric current电流可以把动力传送

13、到很远的地方，其消耗几乎可以忽略不计。5)The present onslaught of vehicles poses a serious threat to urban life and pedestrian peace of mind当前，车辆横冲直闯，严重地威胁着城市生活，路上行人无不提心吊胆。6)Change of information，if any，concerning the contents of this section will be found in the appendix at the end of this book本节内容如有更改，均见本书末附录。7)She s

14、aid，with perfect truth, that “it must be delightful to have a brother，”and easily got the pity of tender-hearted Amelia，for being alone in the world，an orphan without friends or kindred(“Vanity Fair”)她说道，“有个哥哥该多好啊，”这话说得入情入理。她没爹没娘，又没有亲友，真是孤苦伶仃。软心肠的阿米莉亚听了，立刻觉得她可怜。3其他连接手段，如形态变化形式，包括词缀变化，动词、名词、代词、形容词和副词

15、的形态变化(如性、数、格、时、体、语态、语气、比较级、人称等)及其保持前后一致的关系(grammatical and notional concord)，广泛使用代词以保持前呼后应的关系，以及使用“it”和“there”作替补词(expletives)起连接作用等等。英语常常综合运用上述的关系词、连接词、介词以及其他连接手段，把各种成分连接起来，构筑成长短句子，表达一定的语法关系和逻辑联系。如：1)He boasts that a slave is free the moment his feet touch British soil and he sells the children of

16、the poor at six years of age to work under the lash in the factories for sixteen hours a day他吹嘘说，任何奴隶一踏上英国的土地就获得自由，而他却出卖穷人家六岁的孩子到工厂干活，每天十六小时，受尽鞭打责骂。2)They would have had to live the rest of their lives under the stigma that they had recklessly precipitated an action which wrecked the Summit Conferen

17、ce and conceivably could have launched a nuclear war.他们恐怕免不了在有生之年要蒙受不洁之名，人们会说他们贸然采取行动，使最高级会议遭到搁浅，而且，可以设想，还可能挑起了一场核战争。3)Could any spectacle，for instance，be more grimly whimsical than that of gunners using science to shatter men?s bodies while, close a hand, surgeons use it to restore them?炮手用科学毁坏了人体，

18、而就在附近，外科医生用科学使其恢复健康，还有什么情景比这更加荒谬绝伦?4)There is nothing more disappointing to a hostess who has gone to a lot of trouble or expense than to have her guest so interested in talking politics or business with her husband that he fails to notice the flavor of the coffee, the lightness of the cake, or the

19、attractiveness of the house, which may be her chief interest and pride(“Western Manners)最令女主人失望的是，她花了许多心神或费用来招待客人，可是这位客人只顾津津有味地与她的丈夫谈政治、谈生意，却没注意到香喷喷的咖啡，松软的糕点，或房间内讲究的陈设，而这些却可能是她感到兴趣并引以自豪的主要所在。5)Eyen in its blasted condition, with boards and sackings in most of the windows, with its thick dust and its

20、 bare room, with its cracked plaster and its damaged roofs, the hotel had been a new world, a breadth and dignity，full of adventure possibilities(“Betrayed Spring”)这家旅馆，尽管被炸坏了，窗户大多钉上了木板，并堆上了沙包，到处是厚厚的尘土，房间空空荡荡，墙上的石灰也裂了，屋顶也坏了，可总是一个宽阔庄严的新天地，值得去探索。二、汉语的意合法汉语造句少用甚至不用形式连接手段，注重隐性连贯(covert coherence)，注重逻辑事理

21、顺序，注重功能、意义，注重以神统形。汉语的形合手段比英语少得多：没有英语所常用的那些关系代词、关系副词、连接代词和连接副词；介词数量少，大约只有30个，而且大多是从动词“借”来的。王力指出，汉语“所谓欧化的介词当中，其实有大部分不是真的介词，只是靠着西文的反映，就显得它们有介词性罢了。?汉语一些介词，如“在”、“向”、“进”、“到”、“沿”、“过”、“从”、“为”、“给”、“用”、“拿”、“依”等，原均为动词。介词和连词常常可以省略，甚至不用，尤其是口语，用了反而显得多余。高名凯指出，“汉人平常说话不喜欢用太多没有基本意义的虚词，只是把事情或意思排列起来，让人去了解这两个事情或两个意思之间所生

22、的关系如何。?不过这并不是说汉人说话不合逻辑，因为不加虚词，我们也知道这句话的意思。” 汉语没有词的形态变化，没有“it”和“there”这类替补词，代词也用得较少，总之，“尽量省去一切不必要的形式装置”，重意合而不重形合，词语之间的关系常在不言之中，语法意义和逻辑联系常隐含在字里行间。汉语的意合法往往采用以下手段：1语序。汉语的许多主从复句，虽然不用关联词，形式类似并列复句，但分句含义却有主有次。从句若前置，一般有“因为”、“如果”、“虽然”、“即使”等含义。据统计，汉语中三分之二的因果句不到必要时，不用关联词。先“因”后“果”，几乎不用“因为”，属常态；先“果”后“因”，大多用“因为”，属

23、变态。如：1. (因为)她不老实，我不能信任她。Because she is not honest，I cant t trust her我不能信任她，因为她不老实。I can?t trust her，because she is not honest2)人(若)不犯我，我(则)不犯人。We will not attack unless we are attacked3)说是说了，没有结果。(=我虽然说了，但是没有结果。)I?ve made proposals，but they proved futile4)打肿脸充胖子，吃亏是自己。If you get beyond your depth，yo

24、u will suffer5)人到事中迷，就怕没人提。When a man is lost in a 1abyrinth，what he needs badly is a hint6)抓住了主要矛盾，一切问题就可以迎刃而解。Once the principal contradiction is grasped，all problems can be readily solved2反复、排比、对偶、对照等。这些句式词句整齐、匀称，往往不用关联词：1)他不来，我不去。(=如果他不来，我就不去。)f he won?t come here，I?ll not go there2)种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆。As

25、 you sow，so will you reap3)不怕慢，只怕站。It?s better to move ahead slowly than just to mark time.4)吃苦在前，享乐在后。Be the first to bear hardships and the 1ast to enjoy comforts5)聪明一世，糊涂一时。Smart as a rule，but this time a foo16)不知苦中苦，哪知甜中甜?If you have never tasted the bitterness of gall，how can you know the sweet

26、ness of honey?7)东边闪电出日头，西边闪电必有雨，南边闪电天气热，北边闪电有雷雨。If it lightens in the east，it will be sunny；if it lightens in the west，it will be rainy；if it lightens in the south，it will be sultry；if it lightens in the north，it will be stormy3紧缩句。这类意合句式是由复句紧缩而成的。“所谓?紧?，就是紧凑，是取消各分句之间的语音停顿，让它们紧紧地挨在一起；所谓?缩?，就是压缩，是略去原

27、来分句的一些词语，让它们简约一些。” 这类句式简明紧凑，分句之间的语法关系和逻辑联系往往是隐含的：1)有饭大家吃。(=如果有饭的话，那就让大家吃吧)Let everybody share the food if there is any2)不到黄河心不死。Until all is over, ambition never dies3)狐狸再狡猾也斗不过好猎手。However sly a fox may be，it is no march for a good hunter4)狼披羊皮还是狼。A wolf remains a wolf even though it is in sheep?s c

28、lothing5)问遍千家成行家。Learn from numerous advisers, and you will become a master6)上梁不正下梁歪。If the upper beam is not straight，the lower ones will go aslantWhen those above behave unworthily，those below will do the same4四字格。四字格是汉语里广为运用的语言形式。吕叔湘指出，“2+2的四音节是现代汉语里的一种重要的节奏倾向。四音节的优势特别表现在现代汉语里存在着大量四音节熟语即?四字格?这一事实

29、上。” 四字格往往历经锤炼，言简意赅，常常是意合法的佳作：1)不进则退He who does not advance falls backwardMove forward, or you?ll fall behind2)酒醉智昏When wine is in, wit is out3)物极必反Once a certain limit is reached, a change in the opposite direction is inevitable4)玩火自焚Whoever plays with fire will perish by fire5)欲盖弥彰The more one trie

30、s to hide，the more one is exposed6)远交近攻Befriend those far away while attacking those nearby王力指出，“西洋语的结构好象连环，虽则环与环都联络起来，毕竟有联络的痕迹；中国语的结构好象无缝天衣，只是一块一块的硬凑，凑起来还不让它有痕迹。西洋语法是硬的，没有弹性的；中国语法是软的，富于弹性的。惟其是硬的，所以西洋语法有许多呆板的要求，如每一个clause里必须有一个主语; 惟其是软的，所以中国语法只以达意为主，如初系的目的位可兼次系的主语，又如相关的两件事可以硬凑在一起，不用任何的connective wor

31、d” ENida也认为，英汉在语言学上最重要的一个区别就是形合和意合的不同。英语注重形合，注重结构、形式，常常借助各种连接手段，因而比较严谨(preciseness)；汉语注重意合，注重功能、意义，常常不用或少用连接手段，因而比较简洁(conciseness)。英译汉时，往往要先分析句子的结构、形式，才能确定句子的功能、意义；汉译英时，往往要先分析句子的功能、意义，才能确定句子的结构、形式。如：1)A body in motion remains in motion at a constant speed in a straight line unless acted upon by an e

32、xternal force没有外力作用，运动的物体就连续作匀速直线运动。2)There is no more difference，but there is just the same kind of difference, between the mental operations of a man of science and those of an ordinary person as there is between the operations and methods of a baker or of a butcher who weights out his goods in co

33、mmon scales and the operations of a chemist who performs a difficult and complex analysis by means of his balance and finely graduated weights(THHuxley)科学家的思维活动和普通人的思维活动之间存在着差别，这种差别就跟一个面包师或者卖肉者和一个化验师在操作方法上的差别一样。前者用普通的秤称东西的重量，而后者则用天平和精密砝码进行艰难复杂的分析。其差别不过如此而已。3)The growth of class consciousness among t

34、he workers was inhibited by continued high levels of employment and rising earnings for almost 15 years, combines with the propaganda of views in the 1abor movement reflecting the influence of Keynesian theories about the ability of capitalismtosolvepermane；将近十五年来，就业率一直保持高水平，工资收入不断；4)从其交友知其为人；Tellme

35、whomyouassociatewi；5)我过去所受的那些委屈和刺激，比起他来，也只是；Whatlittlepainandadversi；6)我们约他做攻守同盟，本想彼此提携，有福同享，；Whenwegothimtogoinwcapitalism to solve permanently the problem of “boom and bust” through a “managed economy” of built-in stabilizers将近十五年来，就业率一直保持高水平，工资收入不断增长。凯恩斯有一套理论，认为资本主义制度有能力通过名曰“内在稳定因素”的“国家调节经济”永远解决繁

36、荣与危机交替出现的问题。而劳工运动则宣传反映凯恩斯理论影响的观点。这种种因素结合在一起，就使 工人阶级觉悟的提高受到阻碍。4)从其交友知其为人。Tell me whom you associate with and I?ll tell you who you are.5)我过去所受的那些委屈和刺激，比起他来，也只是小巫见大巫，算不得什么。(李六如：六十年的变迁)What little pain and adversity I?ve experienced so far are simply nothing compared to what he?s gone through6)我们约他做攻守同

37、盟，本想彼此提携，有福同享，有祸同当，不料他倒先来沾我们的光了。(茅盾：子夜)When we got him to go in with us it was on the understanding that we sink or swim together, but now it turns out that he was only out to sponge on us!7)再试纺，顶多忙一阵子，过了几天，还不是外甥打灯笼找舅(照旧)。(周而复：上海的早晨)And if we?re now going to have a check spinning it, it?ll only mean

38、 that we?ll be busier than ever for a spell and then after a few days things will be back to what they were before三、形合、意合与文体英语和汉语都有形合句和意合句。一般地说，英语形合句多，汉语意合句多，但其多少与文体密切相关。书面语没有口语的辅助语言手段，如表情、手势、语调等，又要表达复杂的逻辑关系，必须常常借助关联词语和其他形式手段，因而形合句比口语多。现代汉语受西方语言的影响，形合句比古代汉语多。OJespersen对古汉语曾评论说：“Undoubtedly Chinese o

39、f the old style carries with it an impressive dignity through the immediate succession of nothing but momentous notions；it acquires a simple greatness because it throws away all unnecessary accessory elements and thus，as it were，takes night to pure thinking” 从古代汉语流传下来的大量成语、谚语，大多匀称对偶，节奏铿锵，琅琅上口，言筒意赅，至

40、今仍为汉语意合句的重要组成部分。现代庄重文体、科技文体和论述文体较多采用形合句，以表达清晰的逻辑关系和复杂的思想内容。例如严复以下几段有关翻译的著名论述，用汉代以前的雅语，常以单句代复句，以平列代主从，多取意合法：译事三难信达雅。求其信已大难矣。顾信矣不达。虽译犹不译也。则达尚焉。 易曰修辞立诚。子曰辞达而已。又曰言之无文。行之不远。三者乃文章正轨。亦即为译事楷模。故信达而外。求其尔雅。此不仅期以行远已耳。实则精理微言。用汉以前字法句法。则为达易。用近世利俗文字。则求达难。往往抑义就词。毫厘千里。审择于斯二者之间。夫固有所不得已也。岂钓奇哉。新理踵出。名目纷繁。索之中文。渺不可得。即有牵合。终

41、嫌参差。译者遇此。独有自具衡量。即义定名。一名之立。旬月踟蹰。(严复：天演论译例言)这几段论述若译成现代汉语和现代英语，则多取形合法：翻译工作有三大困难：忠实、通顺、典雅。要做到忠实于原文已经很不容易，但如果只注意忠实于原文而忽略了译文的通顺，那么，即使译了，也等于没译，可见译文通顺也是需要的。易经指出：“修辞要注重表达准确。”孔子也说过：“做文章，不过是把意思表达得明畅罢了。”他又说：“言语缺乏文采，就不能扩大影响。”可见，这三方面都是写作所必须遵循的原则，也是翻译的标准。因此，除了表达准确、通顺之外，我还力求文字古雅，这不仅仅是为了扩大影响而已。其实，那些精辟的道理和微妙的语言，用汉代以前

42、的词法和句法去翻译，倒还易于表达，而用现代通俗文字去翻译。反而不容易表达得明畅，而且往往为了迁就词句而损害原意，使得译文差之毫厘，谬以千里。对以上两种情况，经过反复考虑，我选择了前者。这乃是出于不得已，而非追求文字的新奇啊!新的学说接二连三地出现，新的名称也随之多了起来。这些新名称，从汉语里无法找到，即使勉强牵连凑合，毕竟嫌有出入。译者遇到这种情况，只有运用自己的判断力，按照新名称的含义去确定译名。有时为了确定一个译名，往往要花上十天或个把月的时间，反复推敲。Translation has to do three difficult things：to be faithful，expressi

43、ve，and elegantIt is difficult enough to be faithful to the original，and yet if a translation is not expressiveit is tantamount to having no translationHence expressiveness should be required tooThe Book of Change says that the first requisite of rhetoric is truthfulnessConfucius says that expressiveness is all that matters in languageHe adds that if one?s1anguage lacks graceit won?t go farThese three qualities，then，are the criterio