新编简明英语语言学Chapter7Languagechange语言变化

1、Chapter 7 Language change语言变化知识点：1. *Definition: clipping; blend; acronym; back-formation2. Morphological and syntactic change3. *Vocabulary change4. Some recent trends in language change5. Causes of language change考核目标：识记：Definition: clipping; blend; acronym; back-formation领会：Morphological and synt

2、actic change; Vocabulary change简单应用：Some recent trends in language change; Causes of language change一、定义 1. Clipping略写词：A kind of abbreviation of otherwise longer words or phrases. 指比较长的词或短语的缩写2. Blending 混合法：A process of forming a new word by combining parts of two other words.3. Acronym首字母缩略词 ：wor

3、ds derived from the initials of several words通过组合每个词的首位字母构成新词4. Back-formation 逆向构词法： new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word. 新词可以通过“去掉”现存的词的后缀而被创造出来二、知识点 7.2 Phonological changes元音变化 One of the most obvious change in English is the systematic and regular change in the Vo

4、wel Change:Old English古英语Modern English现代英语 (如在arm中) stnstonehmhomewrtwroterdrodeAround the death of Chaucer in 1400，元音开始了进一步的转变。中世纪英语的vowel元音经历了巨大的变化：p261中，p94英7.3 Morphological and syntactic change形态和句法变化7.3.1 Addition of affixes词缀增加 词汇的增加 borrowing 和word formation. The most obvious way in which m

5、odern English differs lexically from old English is the number of Borrowed words from other languages. 由于英语从法语中借入了诸如favourable和accomplishment一类的词使得 -able和 -ment加入到英语的形态系统中。 Grammaticalization: In addition to the borrowed affixes, some lexical forms became grammaticalized over time.Fusion融合: refers t

6、o this type of grammaticalization in which word develop into affixes, either prefixes前缀 or suffixes.后缀1）prefixes前缀 ：affix + base2）suffixes.后缀 ：base + affixMany of modern English suffixes are derived from early words by means of fusion. (p95英)7.3.2 Loss of affixes词缀丢失 （p96英 see） 在古英语中， -bora通常加在名词的后边

7、派生出一个表示相应动作的执行者的名词，但是在现代英语中这个派生后缀已经丢失，如： mund (protection) + bora mundbora (protector) 派生规则丢失的另外一个例子是-yan的丢失。在古英语中，-yan加在形容词的后边派生出一个使役动词。在现代英语中，-yan已经消失。 古英语中有一套性标记系统。该系统把名词分为阳性词、阴性词和中性词。古英语中有一半以上名词具有格标记表示不同的格，但是在现代英语中，性和格标记的丢失已成为最为显著的形态丢失之一。7.3.3 Change of word order规则的改变 古英语中有一个复杂的格标记系统，语法功能可以用格标记

8、很好地揭示出来。格标记的存在使得古英语的词序比现代英语要灵活得多。例如，古英语的词序包括SVO,VSO, SOV 和OSV， 而在现代英语中，由于绝大多数格标记的丢失使得句子必须遵从SVO这一基本词序。 Subject object verb S O V 7.3.4 Change in negation rule否定规则的改变英语句子结构方面的规则变化主要体现在词序上。在中古英语时期，“not”加在肯定句句末构成否定句。但在现代英语中， “not”是加在主动词和助动词之间构成否定句，例如： I deny it not. I love thee not. He saw you not.In mo

9、dern English, not must precede the main verb, and a do, marked for the proper tense, must be inserted:I love you. I do not love you.He saw you. He did not see you.7.4 Lexical and semantic change词汇和语义的变化7.4.1 Addition of new word新词的增加1)coinage创新词：a new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose,

10、mostly for new things and objects.是指创造新词。这些词多来自于产品的商标，如Hoover, Whiteout, Thermofax, Mace是商标名，在现代英语中已经成为普通英语单词： To hoover a floor：用真空吸尘器吸地板上的灰尘 To white out a mistake：用白色涂改液涂改错误 To thermofax a material：用红外复印术复印材料 To mace demonstators：向游行示威者喷射梅斯毒气 2)clipped words略写法clipping refers to the abbreviation缩

11、写 of longer words or phrases.：它是指比较长的词或短语的缩写。例如（p98英）： zoo (zoological garden) gym (gymnasium) copter (helicopter) phone (telephone) 3) blending混合法：a blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words 它是通过组合其他词的某些部分而构成新词，例如（p99英）： medicare( medical + care) smog (smoke + fog) comsat (communicat

12、ions + satellite) brunch (breakfast + lunch) 4）acronymys首字母缩略法: words derived from the initials of several words通过组合每个词的首位字母构成新词，例如（p99英）： VIP (very important person) OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) 5）backformation逆向构词法：new words may be coined from already existing words by“subt

13、racting减法”an affix thought to be part of the old word.新词可以通过“去掉”现存的词的后缀而被创造出来，e.g.（p100英）： edit (由editor得出的一个错误设想，认为“or”是一个agentive suffix)enthuse（由enthusiasm得出）(derived from enthusiasm)burgle (由burglar得出) baby-sit (由baby-sitter得出) to hawk (由hawker得出) to butch(由butcher得出)to beg(由beggar得出)6）functiona

14、l shift功能转换：words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes.单词可以不通过加入词缀就从一个词类转到另一个词类。e.g.（p100英）7）borrowing借用：when differwnt cultures come into contact, words are often “borrowed”one language to another.the loan word may label a new concept, or it may replace or be

15、come a synonym of a native word.当不同的文化发生接触时，词就经常从一种语言“借到”另一种语言之中。外来词可以标记一个新的概念，或可以取代或成为本族词的同义词。e.g.P266-267中英语词汇增加的历史特点是大量的借词和构词。 来自法语的借词，例如： Government, religion, chaplain, crime, medicine, physician 来自希腊语的借词： Myth, geometry, gymnastics 来自拉丁语的借词： Formula, memorandum, datum, curriculum 来自西班牙语的借词： Ba

16、nana, mosquito, embargo, plaza 来自德语的借词： Kindergarten, dock, seminar, plunder, zinc 来自汉语的借词： Lichi, typhoon, tea, ginseng 7.4.2 Loss of words词汇的丢失 古英语和中古英语中的许多词在现代英语中都已消失，例如：demiss, ere, oft, wot, beseem, wer, aught, thee, thou, thy，等。在一些复合词中有时还能看到它们，如: were-wolf。（p102英）(新词几乎每天都在进入英语词汇，但许多新创词的存在期是非常之

17、短的，词汇废弃的最常见原因之一是它们所命名的物体的不连续性。E.g.：soap flakes皂片；wash board洗衣板；rumble seat汽车车篷后的活动座位.处于消亡阶段)7.4.3 semamtic change语义的变化1.semantic broadening语义扩展：when the meaning of a word becomes broader, it may include all the meanings it used to mean, and then more.当一个词的意义变得更为广的时候，它不仅表示它以前所表示的意义，而且还表示更多的意思。语义的广义化是

18、词的意义经过历史的演化变得更为宽泛或更具有包容性的过程。 Words Past meaning +specific Present meaning +general Dog a kind of hunting dog any kind of dog Aunt fathers sister both fathers and mothers sister Holiday a holy day any day off Tail the tail of horse the tail of any animal2.semantic narrowing语义的缩小：semantic change has n

19、arrowed the meaning of some words which are still used in Modern English.在几代人的进程中，语义变化也把词的意义缩小到了现代英语中才有的意思。（语义的狭义化指词的意义比其历史上的初始意义狭窄的过程,）例如： Words past meaning present meaning （narrowing of meaning）Hund any kind of dog a dog used for hunting Deer an animal a special kind of animal Meat food the flesh

20、 of animals Wife a woman a married womanGirl a child a female child 3.semantic shift语义的转换：the fact that a lexical item may undergo a shift in meaning is the third kind of semantic change.词汇项的意义可能发生转换的事实是第三种语义变化。（语义演变是指一个词失去了初始的意义而获得了一个新的意义，这个意义有时与初始意义相关。）例如： Words past meaning present meaning（转换）Fon

21、d foolish loving, affectionate Inn small old hotel or pub 词义抬升：nice hotelNice ignorant无知 词义抬升：goodLust pleasure快乐 词义下降:负面的欲望，性Immoral no customary不合风俗的 词义下降：不道德的Silly happy 词义下降：stupid人类语言的本质是：语言是受规则支配的；语言变化是系统的、有规则的、渐进的行为。7.5 some recent trends一些最近的趋势7.5.1 moving towards greater informality更趋向于非正式性

22、e.g. past time : Passengers are requires not to communicate with the driver while the vehicle is in motionpresent: Please dont speak to the driver while he is driving.汽车行进时乘客请别和司机谈话。书面语词你运用中更为非正式的趋势收到欢迎。7.5.2 The influenceof American English 美国英语的影响美国通过电视、电影、报纸、杂志、广播等影响着英国。有些美国英语的词：teenagers，commute

23、r等已经出现在英国英语的表达上。7.5.3 The influence of science and technology科技的影响由于科学技术的发展飞快，它们运用新词来表达新的概念、新技术和新发明：1） space travel太空旅行（p271中）：Space suit, heat-shield, moonscape月球表面, readout,lunar rover登月车2）computer and internet language计算机和网络语言e.g.（p271中）： program程序, cinput输入，output输出，email，hanker黑客，Information hi

24、ghway信息高速公路 3）ecology生态学对植物、动物、人和环境之间的关系（p272中）：Ecoativist，visual pollution视觉污染，noise pollution，environment-friendly有利环境的，eco-friendly生态友好的7.6 the causes of language change 语言变化的原因1）Rule simplification规则的简化和规则化规则的简化或规则化是针对语言规则中的例外而言的。例如由于规则化的结果，“leaf”, agendum, datum, curriculum 以及 memorandum等名词的复数由原来的不规则形式如：leaves, agenda, data, curricula, memoranda向规则形式演变，如：leafs, agendas, datas, curriculum