市场营销外文文献

1、市场营销策略、市场细分和目标市场策略具有需求， 具有购买能力并愿意花销的个体或组织构成了市场。 然而，在大多数市场中， 购买者的需求不一致。 因此， 对整个市场采用单一的营销计划可能不会成功。一个合理的营销计划应以区分市场中存在的差异为起点， 这一过程被称为市场细分， 它还包括将何种细分 市场作为目标市场。市场细分使公司能更加有效地利用其营销资源。而且， 也使得小公司可以通过集中在一两个细分上场上有效地参与竞争。 市场细分的明显缺点是， 其导致了比单一产品、 单一大市 场策略更高的生产和营销成本。 但是，如果市场细分得当的话，更加符合消费者的需求，实 际上将生产更高的效率。确定目标市场有三种可

2、供选择的策略， 它们是统一市场、 单一细分市场和多重细分市场。 统一市场策略即采取一种营销组合用到一个整体的、 无差异的市场中去。 采取单一细分市场 策略， 公司仍然仅有一种营销组合， 但它只用在整个市场的一个细分市场中。 多重细分市场 策略需要选择两个或更多的细分市场，并且每个细分市场分别采用一种单独的营销组合。二、产品定位管理者将注意力集中于一种品牌， 并以恰当的方式将其与类似的品牌相区分， 但这并不 意味着该品牌就一定能够最后赢利。 因此， 管理者需要进行定位， 即塑造与竞争品牌和竞争 对手的其他品牌相关的自我品牌形象。市场营销人员可以从各种定位策略中加以选择。有时， 他们决定对某一特定

3、产品采用一种以上的策略。以下是几种主要的定位策略：1. 与竞争者相关的定位对一些产品来说， 最佳的定位是直接针对竞争对手。 该策略特别适用于已经具有固定的 差别优势或试图强化这种优势的厂商。为排挤微处理器的竞争对手， Intel 公司开展了一项 活动使用户确信它的产品优于竞争对手的产品。 公司甚至为电脑制造商出钱， 让它们在自己 的广告中带上“ Intel Inside ”标志。作为市场领导者，可口可乐公司推出新产品并实施其市 场营销策略。同时， 它密切注视百事可乐公司，以确保对主要竞争对手的任何一次巧妙、有 效的营销举措采取相应的对策。2. 与产品类别和属性相关的定位 有时候，公司的定位策略

4、有必要将自己的产品与其类别和属性相联系（或相区别） 。一 些公司尽力将其产品定位在期望的类别中，如 “美国制造” 。用一句某顾问的话来说， “当你 说美国制造的时候，有一种强烈的感情因素在吸引着你” 。因此，一家名为 Boston Preparatory 的规模不大的运动服制造商正在运用这种定位策略， 以期胜过那些并非所有产品 都在美国制造的势力强大的竞争对手如Calvin Kiein 和 Tommy Hilfiger 。3. 通过价格和质量定位某些生产者和零售商因其高质量和高价格而闻名。在零售行业， Saks Fifth Avenue 和 Neiman Marcus 公司正是定位于该价格质量

5、策略的。折扣店 Target Kmart 则是定位于该策 略的反面。我们不是说折扣商店忽视质量，而是说它们更加强调低廉的价格。 Pennys 公司 努力并且大多获得了成功通过升级高级服装线和强调设计者的名字将其商店定位于价 格质量策略上。“品牌”一词是个综合性的概念，它包含其他更狭义的理解。品牌即一个名称和（或） 标志，用以识别一个销售者或销售集团的产品，并将之与竞争产品相区别。品牌名称由能够发音的单词、字母和（或 ）数字组成。品牌标志是品牌的一部分，它以符号、图案或醒目的颜色、 字体的形式出现。品牌标志通过视觉识别，但当人们仅仅读出品牌 名称的时候，品牌标志并不能够被表达出来。Crest、C

6、oors、 Gillette 都是品牌名称。 AT&T由醒目的线条构成的地球以及 Ralph Laurens Polo 的马和骑手是品牌标志，而 Green Giant （罐装冷冻菜蔬产品）和 Arm&Hammer （面包苏打）既是品牌名称又是品牌标志。商标是销售者已经采用并且受到法律保护的品牌。 商标不仅包括品牌标志， 如许多人所 认为的那样，也包括品牌名称。 1946 年的 The Lanham Art 法案允许厂商向联邦政府注册商 标，以保护它们免受其他厂商的使用或误用。1989年生效的商标法修订案（The TrademarkLaw Revision Act ）旨在健全注册系统以维护美国

7、厂商的利益。对于销售者来说， 品牌可以被推广。 当他们陈列于商店或出现在广告中时很容易被认出。 品牌化减少了价格比较。 因为在比较不同产品时， 品牌是有必要考虑的另一因素， 所以品牌 化减少了仅仅依靠价格便作出购买决定的可能。 品牌的知名度还会影响到购买服务和消费品 的消费者的忠诚度。最后，品牌化可以区别商品（例如 Sunkist 牌鲜橙、 Morton 牌食盐以 及 Domino 牌食糖）。三、定价定价是一个动态的过程， 公司会为其所有产品设计一个定价结构。 随着时间的推移， 公 司会改变价格结构，并将之调整到适应不同的消费者和形势的状态。公司应采用多样的价格调整策略来适应消费群体和具体情况

8、的差别。一个是折扣和折让定价，及公司依批量、功能或季节来决定折扣或不同形式的折让。第二个策略是差别定价， 即公司为不同的顾客、 产品或因地点不同而制定两个或两个以上的差别价格。 有时公司在作 价格决策时不仅考虑经济因素， 而且使用心理定价来传达有关产品的质量或价值信息。 在促 销定价时， 公司会在短期内以低于商品定价销售产品， 通过大甩卖来吸引更多的顾客， 有时 甚至低于成本销售。 运用价值定价， 公司以公平价格提供相应的质量和优质服务。 另一种方 法是地区性定价， 公司决定怎样为远距离的客户定价。 通常有以下几种方法可供选择： 原产 地定价、统一交货定价、区域定价、基点定价和免收运费定价。最

9、后，国际市场定价意味着 公司调整其价格来满足不同世界市场的需要。四、产品的分销大部分生产商利用中间商将其产品推向市场。他们努力建立“分销渠道” 一套指 向消费者或企业用户、提供商品或服务的彼此独立建立的组织的总称。为什么生产者将部分销售工作交给中介呢？毕竟， 这样做意味着放弃对产品如何销售和 向谁出售的某种控制。 利用营销中介可以提高商品走向目标市场的效率。 中介组织以其社会 关系、经验、专长以及经营规模往往为生产商创造比其通过自身的努力所能获得的更大的价 值。商品通过分销渠道从生产者手中到达消费者手中。 时间、 地点等因素不一致， 会使商品 和服务与消费者相分离， 而分销渠道克服了这个矛盾。

10、 分销渠道的作用很多， 有些起着促成 交易的作用，如：1. 市场调研2. 促销3. 接触客户的功能：寻找潜在购买者并与之沟通。4. 适销功能：是供给适应购买者的需求，包括加工和包装。5 协调功能：就价格与其他交易条件达成协议以促成所有权的转移。还有一些是功能是 辅助交易的完成，如：1. 货物储运功能2. 资金融通功能3. 承担风险功能：分销商可以替制造商承担分销过程中的风险。问题不在于是否需要这 些功能， 而在于有谁来执行这些功能。 所有这些功能在三个方面是相同的， 即它们都占用有 限的资源， 通过分工能更好地执行这些功能， 以及它们可以由不同的分销商执行。 如果由制 造商执行这些功能， 会导

11、致高成本， 继而导致高价格。 然而，如果一些功能转由中间商执行， 则制造商的成本可能会下降。 当然中间商会在价格中加入它们的工作成本。 在分配分销工作 时，应当将其分配给在满足客户的多种需求方面效率最高的分销商。分销渠道可以用其涉及到的中间环节的多少来描述。 将产品及其所有权向最终消费者专 一的过程中的各个层次的营销中介组织就是渠道层面。由于生产者与消费者都执行某种职 能，故它们也是分销渠道的组成部分。企业在选择中间商时， 要清楚具有什么样的特征的中间商是更优秀的。 企业通常要考察 中间商从业历史的长短、 经营范围、 企业增长和利润的记录、 是否具有协作精神及其声誉情 况。如果该中间商是销售代

12、理， 企业就要考察其经营的其他产品的数量和特点、 销售规模和 能力。如果该中间商是一个想获得独家或非独家经销权的零售店， 企业就要考察其顾客的情 况、地理位置及其未来的增长潜力。理解分销渠道的性质是很重要的。 因为选择正确的分销渠道是企业决策最重要的内容之一。之所以利用营销中介组织， 是因为他们在是产品进入目标市场的过程中创造了更高的效 率。分销渠道的最关键的作用是， 它能促成交易或辅助完成交易， 从而将产品从生产者手中 到达消费者手中。 分销渠道可以用渠道中介环节的数量来描述。 在直接营销渠道中， 没有一 个中介环节，而在间接营销渠道中，则有一个或多个中介环节。五、产品促销促销时公司营销组合

13、四个主要组成部分之一。 主要的促销工具 广告、 营业推广、 公 共关系和人员推销互相配合才能达到公司的沟通目标。组织中各层次的人员必须清楚许多有关营销沟通的法律和伦理问题。 制定在广告、 人员 销售和直销方面对社会负责的营销沟通需要做很多工作。 公司必须努力和积极， 以便使沟通 开放、诚实，让顾客和分销商满意。Marketing StrategyMarket Segmentation and Target StrategyA market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingn

14、ess to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets.Marketing segment

15、ation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,

16、mass-market strategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers needs will actually result in greater efficiency.The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiple segment.Market-aggregation strategy invo

17、lves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, a company still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entails selecting two or more segments and developing a separate mar

18、keting mix to reach segment.Positioning the ProductManagements ability to bring attention to a product and to differentiate it in a favorable way from similar products goes a long way toward determining that products revenues.Thus management needs to engage in positioning,which means developing the

19、image that a product projects in relation to competitive products and to the firms other products.Marketing executives can choose from a variety of positioning strategies.Sometimes they decide to use more than one for a particular product.Here are several major positioning strategies:1. Positioning

20、in Relation to a competitorFor some products,the best position is directly against the competition.This strategy is especially suitable for a firm that already has a solid differential advantage or is trying to solidify such an advantage.T o fend off rival markers of microprocessors,Intel Corp.launc

21、hed a campaign to convince buyers that its product is superior to competitors.The company even paid computer makers to include the slogan,Intel Inside in their ads.As the market leader,Coca-Cola introduces new products and executes its marketing strategies.At the same time,it keeps an eye on Pepsi-C

22、ola,being sure to match any clever,effective marketing moves made by its primary competitor.2. Positioning in Relation to a Product Class or AttributeSometimes a companys positioning strategy entails associating its product with(or distancing it from)a product class or attributes.Some companies try

23、to place their products in a desirable class,such asMade in the USA.In the words of one consultant,There is a strong emotional appeal when you say,Made in the USA.Thus a small sportswear manufacturer,Boston Preparatory Co.is using this positioning strategy to seek an edge over large competitors such

24、 as Calvin Klein and Tommy Hilfiger,which dont produce all of their products in the U.S.3. Positioning by Price and QualityCertain producer and retailers are known for their high-quality products and high prices.In the retailing field,Sake Fifth Avenue and Neiman Marcus are positioned at one end of

25、the price-quality continuum.Discount stores such as Target and Kmart are at the other.Were not saying,however,that discounters ignore quality;rather, they stress low prices.Penneys tired and for the most part succeeded in repositioning its stores on the price-quality continuum by upgrading apparel l

26、ines and stressing designer names.The word brands is comprehensive;it encompasses other narrower terms.A brand is a name and/or mark intended to identify the product of one seller or group of sellers and differentiate the product from competing products.A brand name consists of words,letters,and/or

27、numbers that can be vocalized.A brand mark is the part of the brand that appears in the form of a symbol, design,or distinctive color or lettering.A brand mark is recognized buy sight bu cannot be expressed when a person pronounces the brand name.Crest,Coors,and rider for Ralph Laurens Polo Brand.Gr

28、een Giant(canned and frozen vegetable products)and Arm&Hammer(baking soda)are both brand names and brand marks.A trademark is a brand that has been adopted by a seller and given legal protection.A trademark includes not just the brand mark,as many peoplebelieve,but also the brandname.The Lanham Act

29、of 1946 permits firms to register trademarks with the federal government to protect them from use or misuse by other companies.The Trademark Law Revision Act,which took effect in 1989,is tended to strengthen the the registration system to the benefit of U.S. Firms.For sellers,brands can be promoted.

30、They are easily recognized when displayed in a store or included in advertising.Branding reduces price comparisons.Because brands are another factor that needs to be considered in comparing different products,branding reduces the likelihood of purchase decision based solely on price.The reputation o

31、f a brand also influences customer loyalty among buyers of services as well as customer goods.Finally,branding can differentiate commodities(Sunkist oranges,Morton salt,and Domino sugar,for example).PricingPricing is a dynamic process,Companies design a pricing structure that covers all their produc

32、ts.They change this structure over time and adjust it to account for different customers and situations.Pricing strategies usually change as a product passes through its life cycle.Marketers face important choice when they select new product pricing strategies.The company can decide on one of severa

33、l price-quality strategies for introducing an imitative product.In pricing innovative products,it can practice market-skimming pricing by initially setting high prices toskimthe maximum amount of revenue from various segments of the market.Or it can use market penetration pricing by setting a low in

34、itial price to win a large market share.Companies apply a variety of price-adjustment strategies to account for differences in consumer segments and situations.One is discount and allowance pricing,whereby the company decides on quantity,functional,or seasonal discounts,or varying types of allowance

35、s. A second strategy is segmented pricing, where the company sellers a product at two or more prices to allow for differences in customers, products, or locations. Sometimes companies consider more than economics in their pricing decisions,and use psychological pricing to communicate about the produ

36、cts quality or value.In promotional pricing,companies temporarily sell their product bellow list price as a special-event to draw more customers,sometimes even selling below cost.With value pricing, the company offers just the night combination of quality and good service at a fair price. Another ap

37、proach is geographical pricing, whereby the company decides how to price distant customers, choosing from alternative as FOB pricing,uniform delivered pricing, zone pricing, basing-point pricing, and freight-absorption pricing. Finally, international pricing means that the company adjusts its price

38、to meet different world markets.Distribution ChannelsMost producers use intermediaries to bring their products to market.They try to forge a distribution channel a set of interdependent organizations involved in the process of marking a product or service available for use or consumption by the cons

39、umers or business user.Why do producers give some of the selling job to intermediaries?After all,doing so means giving up some control over how and to whom the products are sold.The use of intermediaries results from their greater efficiency in marking goods available to target markets.Through their

40、 contacts, experience, specialization, and scales of operation,intermediaries usually offer the firm move value than it can achieve on its own efforts.A distribution channel moves goods from producers to customers.It overcomes the major time, place, and possession gaps that separate goods and servic

41、es from those who would use them. Members of the marketing channel perform many functions. Some help to complete transactions:1.Information.2.Promotion.3.Contact:finding and communicating with prospective buyers.4. Matching:fitting the offer to the buyers needs, including such activities as manufact

42、uring and packaging.5. Negotiation:reaching an agreement on price and other terms of the offer so that ownership or possession can be transferred.Other help to fulfill the completed transferred.1. Transporting and storing goods.2. Financing.3. Risk taking:assuming the risk of carrying out the channe

43、l work.The question is not whether these functions need to be performed, but rather who is to perform them. All the functions have three things in common:They use up scarce resource, they often can be performed better through specialization, and they can be shifted among channel members.T o the exte

44、nt that the manufacturer performs these functions, its costs go up and its prices have to be higher. At the same time, when some of these functions are shifted to intermediaries, the producers costs and prices may be lower, but the intermediaries must charge more to cover the costs of their work. In

45、 dividing the work of the channel, the various functions should be assigned to the channel members who can perform them most efficiently and effectively to provide satisfactory assortments of goods to target consumers.Distribution channels can be described by the number of channel levels involved.Ea

46、ch layer of marketing intermediaries that performs some work in brining the product and its ownership closer to the final buyer is a channel level. Because the producer and the final consumer both perform some work, they are part of every channel.When selecting intermediaries, the company should determine what characteristics distinguish the better ones. It will want to evaluate the the channel members years in business, other lines carried, growth and profit record, co-operativeness, and reputation. If the intermediaries are sales agents, the