(完整版)英语语言学知识点整理

1、halidaychild language. macrofunctions: ideational, interpersonal, textual.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?phonetics-the study of the phonic medium of language, its concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.phonology-the study of sounds systems the

2、inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.morphology-its a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.syntax-its a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a lang

3、uage. semantics-its simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.pragmatics-the study of meaning in context of words. the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.sociolinguisticsthe study of language with reference to society.psycholinguistics-th

4、e study of language with reference to the working of the mind. applied linguistics-the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.chapter2 phonologythree branches of phonetics: articulatory describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds

5、 and how they differ. auditory-studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal. acoustic-studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.organs of speech : phar

6、yngeal cavity 咽腔 oral cavity 口腔 greatest source of modification of air stream found here nasal cavity 鼻腔broad transcription: the transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. (leaf /l/) narrow transcription: the transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.(dark /

7、l/)phonetics and phonology 区别: are concerned with the same aspect of language- the speech sounds. phonetics: it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; phonetic features they possess; how they can be classified, etc. phonology: it aims to discover how speech sounds in a l

8、anguage form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.rules in phonology: sequential rules: rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. assimilation rules: the assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a featur

9、e of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. deletion rule: its a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.suprasegmental 超切分特征: the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental

10、 features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone. (intonation: when pitch, stress and sound lenth are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation. /tone: tone are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. tone

11、 is a suprasegmental feature.)chapter3 morphologyopen class words: new words can be added to these classes regularly. such as nouns, verbs,adjectives and adverbs. such as beatnik. closed class words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of the grammatical or functional words. th

12、e number of such words is small and stable since few new words are added.chapter4 syntaxdetermine a word s category: meaning. word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. the meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. the property or attribute of the

13、 entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives.(pretty lady, attribute the property “pretty” to the lady.) inflection. words of different categories take different inflections. such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and

14、progressive affix -ing. distribution. that is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. for example, the girl and a card 小结 a words distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.phrase 包括: head, speci

15、fier, complement. the word round which phrase is formed is termed head. the words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles: semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head. syntactically, they typica

16、lly make a phrase boundary. the words on the right side of the heads are complements. complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. they are attached to the right of the head in english.phrase structure

17、rule: the special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.xp rule: in all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. these similari

18、ties can be summarized as an xp rule, in which x stands for the head n,v,a or p. (xp- (specifier) x (complement)coordination rule: some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. such phenomenon is known as coordination. s

19、uch structure are called coordination structure. ( four important properties: there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction. a category at any level (a head or an entire xp) can be coordinated. coordinated categories must be of the same type. the

20、category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.) coordination rule: x- x *con x)deep structure and surface structure: there are two levels of syntactic structure. the first, formed by the xp rule in accordance with the heads subcategorization

21、 properties, is called deep structure (or d-structure). /the second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or s-structure).chapter 5 semanticsthe naming theory: (greek scholar plato) according to this th

22、eory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.the conceptualist view: it holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather

23、 ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through themediation of concepts in the mind.contextualism: (j.r. firth) people should be studied in terms of situation, use, context elements closely linked with language behaviour. its based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or r

24、educe meaning to observable contexts. two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context. a) the situational context: every utterance occurs in a particular situation, the main components of which include, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are performing, the various objects

25、 and events existent in the situation.-the seal could not be found. b) the linguistic context: co-text, is concerned with the probability of a words co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of the word, and also with the part of text that precedes and follows

26、 a particular utterance.-black coffer& black hair.sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, its abstract and de-contextualized. /reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it is a mat

27、ter of relationship between the form and reality. /关系: linguistic forms, having the same sense, may have different reference in different situations. linguistic forms with the same reference may differ in sense.-morning star= evening star. linguistic forms may have sense, but have no reference in th

28、e real world.-dragon, ghost.hyponymy: it refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.x entails y: entailment: the relationship

29、 between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. e.g. cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead. (x :john married a blond heiress. y: john married a blond.)componential analysis: an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a set of meaning components or s

30、emantic features. for example, boy may be shown as +human +male -adult. semantic features: the smallest units of meaning in a word, which may be described as a combination of semantic components. for example, woman has the semantic features +human -male +adult. /advantages: by specifying the semanti

31、c features of certain word, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.predication analysis:the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components, that is, the meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its co

32、nstituent words. e.g: the dog bit the man. & the man bit the dog. there are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning. grammaticality: grammatical (well-formedness); semantically meaningful: selectional restrictions. (selectional restriction: whether a sentence is sem

33、antically meaningful is governed by the rules called selectional restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.)(consist of predicate and argument)chapter 6 pragmaticscontext(john firth): the notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, its genera

34、lly considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. speech act theory(john austin)searles classification of speech acts: 1 representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true. 2 directives: trying to get the hearer to do something. 3co

35、mmisives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action. 4 expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state. 5 declaration: bring about immediate changes by saying something. /conclusion: all the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but

36、differ in their strength or erative principle (cp): proposed by paul grice, the principle that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk. historical linguistics: a branch of linguistics, is main

37、ly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.semantic broadening: when the meaning of a word becomes broader, it may include all the meanings it used to mean, and then more. such as holiday, which originally meant holy day, but it means any day w

38、hich we dont have to work.semantic narrowing: semantic change has narrowed the meaning of some words. such as deer(any animala particular kind of animal)semantic shift: a lexical item may undergo a shift in meaning is the third kind of semantic change.sociolinguistics: is the sub-field of linguistic

39、 that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live. inter-relationship between language and society:a) language is used not only to communicate meaning, but also establish and maintain social relationshi

40、ps. b) users of the same language in a sense all speak differently, due to their social backgrounds. c) language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. e.g. there is only one word in english for snow, and there are several in es

41、kimo. d) language is related to the structure if the society in which it is used, therefore, judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic. e.g. the use of postvocalic r in england and in new york city.speech community: the social group tha

42、t is singled out for any special study.speech variety: refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. i.e. regional dialects, sociolects, registersregister: in a restricted sense, refers to the variety of language related to ones occupation. in a broader sense

43、, the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. a) field of discourse - topic: the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior.- why/ what-vocabulary, phonological, grammatical features b) tenor of discourse- role: participants and in what

44、 relationship they stand to each other. - formality/ technicality of the language we use. c) mode of discourse - means of communication.-how ( speaking or writing).degree of formality: intimate; casual; consultative; formal; frozenculture: a）in a broad sense: culture means the total way of life of a

45、 people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. b) in a narrow sense: culture may refer to a local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise c

46、ulture or food culture etc.the relationship between language and culture: language as an integral part of human being permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world. it both expresses and embodies cultural reality. reflects and affects a culture s way of thinking and helps perpetuate and change

47、 the culture and its influence, which also facilitates the development of this language at the same time. language is a part of culture.sapir-whorf hypothesis: a belief that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by their structure of their native language.-interdependence of l

48、anguage and thought.(there are two interpretations: a strong version and a weak one. the strong version believes that language patterns determine people s thinking and behavior. the weak one holds that the former influences the later.)greetings and terms of address: a) people in different countries

49、choose the proper greetings to greet different people they meet on different occasions. b) the terms of address can be different in different countries. c) chinese people will also extend kinship terms and indicate peoples influential status.cultural overlap: the situation between two societies due

50、to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beingcultural diffusion: through communication, some elements of culture a enter culture b and become part of culture b, thus bringing about cultural diffusion.linguistics imperialism: it is a kind of kind of linguicism which ca

51、n be defined as the promulgation of global ideologies through the world-wide expansion of one language.language acquisition: it refers to the childs acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community. (the behaviourist, the innatist lad=

52、language acquisition device, the interactionist viewmotherese, child directed speech, caretaker talkunder-extension: use a word with less than its usual range of denotation. e.g, baby uses animal to refer to cat, but denies the bird belongs to an animal. over-extension: extension of the meaning of a

53、 word beyond its usual domain of application by young children. e.g, baby uses apple for all fruit. atypical development: hearing impairment, mental retardation, autism, stuttering, aphasia, dyslexia, dysgraphia.second language acquisition: it refers to the systematic study of how one person acquire

54、s a second language subsequent to his native language. connection between first language acquisition and second language acquisition: theoretically-the new findings and advances in fist language acquisition especially in learning theories and learning process are illuminating in understanding second language acquisition. practically-the techniques used to collect and analyze data in first language acquisition also provide insights and perspectives in the study of second language acquisition. second language acquisition is different fr