SLA二语习得重要问题总结

1、SLA期末考试提纲Week 9Chapter 1 Introducing Second Language AcquisitionChapter 2 Foundations of Second Language AcquisitionPART ONE: Definition:1. Second Language Acquisition (SLA): a term that refers both to the study of in dividuals and groups who are lear ning a Ian guage subseque nt to lear ning their

2、first one as young childre n, and to the process of lear ning that Ian guage.2. Formal L2 learning: instructed learning that takes place in classrooms.3. In formal L2 lear ning: SLA that takes place in n aturalistic con texts.4. First Ianguage/native Ianguage/mother tongue (L1): A Ianguage that is a

3、cquirednaturally in early childhood, usually because it is the primary Ianguage of a child s family. A child who grows up in amultilingual setting may have more tha n one“ first ” Ian guage.5. Second Ianguage (L2): In its general sense, this term refers to any Ianguage that is acquired after the fir

4、st Ianguage has been established. In its specific sense, this term typically refers to an additi on al la nguage which is lear ned within a con text where it is societally dominant and needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes. The more specific sense contrasts with foreign Ianguage

5、, library Ianguage, auxiliary (帮助的，辅助的 )Ianguage, and Ianguage for specific purposes.6. Target Ianguage: The Ianguage that is the aim or goal of learning.7. Foreign Ianguage: A second Ianguage that is not widely used in the learners immediate social con text, but rather one that might be used for fu

6、ture travel or other cross-cultural com muni cati on situati ons, or one that might be studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school with no immediate or necessary practical applicatio n.8. Library Ianguage: A second Ianguage that functions as a tool for further learning,especially whe n

7、 books and journ als in a desired field of study are not com monly published in the learner s L1.9. Auxiliary Ianguage A second Ianguage that learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate sociopolitical setting. Or that they will need for purposes of wider com muni cati on, al

8、though their first Ian guage serves most other n eeds in their lives.10. Li nguistic compete nee: The un derly ing kno wledge that speakers/hearers have of a Ian guage. Chomsky dist in guishes this from lin guistic performa nee.11. Li nguistic performa nee: The use of Ian guage kno wledge in actual

9、producti on.12. Com mun icative compete nee: A basic tenet 原贝卩、信条、教条)of socioli nguisticsdefi ned as“ what a speaker n eeds to know to com muni cate appropriately withi n aparticular Ian guage com mun ity”-TrSiavil2003)13. Pragmatic compete nee: Kno wledge that people must have in order to in terpre

10、t and convey meaning within com muni cative situatio ns.14. M ultili ngualism: The ability to use more tha n one Ian guage.15. M on oli ngualism: The ability to use only one Ian guage.16.Simulta neous multili ngualism: Ability to use more tha n one Ian guage that were acquired duri ng early childhoo

11、d.17.Sequential multilingualism: Ability to use one or more Ianguages that were lear ned after L1 had already bee n established.18nnate capacity: A natural ability, usually referring to children s natural ability tolear n or acquire Ian guage.19.ChiId grammar: Grammar of childre n at differe nt matu

12、rati on al levels that is systematic in terms of producti on and comprehe nsion.20n itial state: The start ing point for Ian guage acquisiti on; it is thought to in clude the un derly ing kno wledge about Ian guage structures and pr in ciples that are in lear ners heads at the very start of L1 or L2

13、 acquisiti on.21ntermediate state: It includes the maturational changes which take place in “ chilogrammar” , and the L2 developmental sequenee which is known as learner Ian guage.22. F inal state: The outcome of L1 and L2 lea ning, also known as the stable state of adult grammar.23. Positive transf

14、er: Appropriate incorporation of an L1 structure or rule in L2 structure.24. Negative tran sfer: In appropriate in flue nee of an L1 structure or rule on L2 use. Also called in terfere nee.25. Poverty-of-the-stimulus: The argume nt that because Ian guage in put to childre n is impoverished and they

15、still acquire L1, there must be an inn ate capacity for L1 acquisiti on.26.StructuraIism: The dominant linguistic model of the 1950s, which emphasized the descripti on of differe nt levels of producti on in speech.27.Phonology: The sound systems of different Ianguages and the study of such systems g

16、en erally.28.S yn tax: The lin guistic system of grammatical relati on ships of words within senten ces, such as orderi ng and agreeme nt.29.Sema ntics: The lin guistic study of meaning.30. Lexicon: The component of Ianguage that is eoncerned with words and their meanin gs.31. Behaviorism: The most

17、in flue ntial cog nitive framework applied to Ian guage lear ning in the 1950s. It claims that lear ning is the result of habit formati on.32. AudioIi ngual method: An approach to Ian guage teachi ng that emphasizes repetiti on and habit formatio n. This approach was widely practiced in much of the

18、world un til at least the 1980s.33. Transformational-Generative Grammar: The first linguistic framework with an in ternal focus, which revoluti oni zed lin guistic theory and had profo und effect on both the study of first and sec ond Ian guages. Chomsky argued effectively that the behaviorist theor

19、y of Ian guage acquisiti on is wrong because it cannot expla in the creative aspects of lin guistic ability. In stead, huma ns must have some inn ate capacity for Ian guage.34. Pri nciples and Parameters (model): The in ternally focused lin guistic framework that followed Chomsky sTransformational-G

20、enerative Grammar. It revised specificati ons of what con stitutes inn ate capacity to in clude more abstract no ti ons of gen eral pri nciples and con stra ints com mon to huma n Ian guage as part of a Un iversal Grammar.35. M in imalist program: The in ternally focused lin guistic framework that f

21、ollowed Chomsky P rinciples and Parameters model. This framework adds distinctions betwee n lexical and fun cti onal category developme nt, as well as more emphasis on the acquisiti on of feature specificati on as a part of lexical kno wledge.36. F un ctio nalism: A lin guistic framework with an ext

22、er nal focus that dates back to the early twentieth century and has its roots in the Prague School (布拉格学派) of Eastern Europe. It emphasizes the information content of utterances and con siders Ian guage primarily as a system of com muni cati on. Fun cti on alist approaches have largely dominated Eur

23、opean study of SLA and are widely followed elsewhere in the world.37. NeuroIi nguistics: The study of the locati on and represe ntatio n of Ian guage in the brai n, of i nterest to biologists and psychologists since the nin etee nth cen tury and one of the first fields to in flue nee cog nitive pers

24、pectives on SLA whe n systematic study bega n in 1960s.38. CriticaI period: The limited nu mber of years duri ng which no rmal L1 acquisiti on is possible.39. CriticaI Period Hypothesis: The claim that childre n have only a limited nu mber of years duri ng which they can acquire their L1 flawlessly;

25、 if they suffered brain damage to the Ianguage areas,brain plasticity in childhood would allow other areas of the brain to take over the Ian guage fun cti ons of the damaged areas, but bey ond a certa in age, no rmal la nguage developme nt would not be possible. This con cept is com mon ly exte nded

26、 to SLA as well, in the claim that on ly childre n are likely to achieve n ative or n ear -n ative proficie ncy in L2.40n formatio n process ing (IP): A cog nitive framework which assumesthat SLA (like lear ning of other complex doma ins) proceeds from con trolled to automatic process ing and invo I

27、ves progressive reorga ni zati on of kno wledge.41. Connectionism: A cognitive framework for explaining learning processes, begi nning in the 1980s and beco ming in creas in gly in flue ntial. It assumes that SLA results from increasing strength of associations between stimuli and resp on ses.42. Va

28、riation theory: A microsocial framework applied to SLA that explores systematic differe nces in lear ner producti on which depe nd on con texts of use.43. Accommodation theory: A framework for study of SLA that is based on the no tio n that speakers usually uncon sciously cha nge their pronun ciati

29、on and eve n the grammatical complexity of senten ces they use to sound more like whomever they are talki ng to.44.Sociocultural theory (SCT): An approach established by Vygotsky which claims that interaction not only facilitates Ianguage learning but is a causative force in acquisition. Further, al

30、l of learning is seen as essentially a social process which is groun ded in sociocultural sett in gs.45. Ethnography(人种论、民族志 )of communication: A framework for analysis of Ianguage and its functions that was established by Hymes(1966). It relates Ian guage use to broader social and cultural con text

31、s, and applies eth no graphic methods of data collecti on and in terpretati on to study of Ian guage acquisiti on and use.46. Acculturation(文化适应 ):Learning the culture of the L2 community and adapti ng to those values and behavior patter ns.47. Acculturation Model/Theory: SchumanW s(1978) theory tha

32、t identifies group factors such as identity and status which determine social and psychological distanee between learner and target Ianguage populations. He claims these in flue nee outcomes of SLA.48.Social psychology: A societal approach in research and theory that allows explorati on of issues su

33、ch as how ide ntity, status, and values in flue nce L2 outcomes and why. It has disciplinary ties to both psychological and social perspectives.PART TWO: Short & Long answers:Chapter 11. What are the similarities and differences between linguists, psycholinguist, sociolinguists and social psycholing

34、uistsP3(1) Linguists emphasize the characteristics of the differences and similarities in the Ian guages that are being lear ned, and the lin guistic compete nce (un derly ing kno wledge) and lin guistic performa nce (actual producti on) of lear ners at various stages of acquisiti on.(2) Psychologis

35、ts emphasize the mental or cognitive processes invoIved in acquisiti on, and the represe ntatio n of Ian guages in the brai n.(3) Sociolinguists emphasize variability in learner linguistic performance, and exte nd the scope of study to com muni cative compete nce(un derly ing kno wledge that additi

36、on ally acco unts for Ian guage use, or pragmatic compete nce).(4) Social psychologists emphasize group-related phenomena, such as identity and social motivati on, and the in teractio nal and larger social con texts of lear ning.2. What are the differences between second language, foreign language,

37、librarylanguage and auxiliary language? P4(1) A second Ianguage is typically an oficial or societally dominant Ianguagen eeded for educati on, employme nt, and other basic purposes. It is ofte n acquired by min ority group members or immigra nts who speak ano ther Ian guage n atively. In this more r

38、estricted sen se, the term is con trasted with other terms in this list.(2) A foreign Ianguage is one not widely used in the learners immediate social con text which might be used for future travel or other cross-cultural com muni catio n situati ons, or studied as a curricular requireme nt or elect

39、ive in school, but with no immediate or n ecessary practical applicatio n. ?(3) A library Ianguage is one which functions primarily as a tool for future lear ning through read ing, especially whe n books or journ als in a desired field of study are not com monly published in the lear ners n ative to

40、n gue.(4) An auxiliary Ianguage is one which learners need to know for some official fun cti ons in their immediate political sett ing, or will n eed for purposes of wider com muni catio n, although their first Ian guage serves most other n eeds in their lives.3. Why are some learners more (or less)

41、 successful than other? P5The in trigui ng questi on of why some L2 lear ners are more successful tha n others requires us to unpack the broad label “learnersfo” some dimensions of discussion. Linguistics may distinguish categories of learners defined by the ide ntity and relati on ship of their L1

42、and L2; psycholi nguists may make disti ncti ons based on in dividual aptitude for L2 lear ning, pers on ality factors, types and stre ngth of motivatio n, and differe nt lear ning strategies; socioli nguists may disti nguish among lear ners with regard to social, econo mic, and political difference

43、s and learner experiences in negotiated interaction; and social psychologists may categorize lear ners accord ing to aspects of their group ide ntity and attitudes toward target Ian guage speakers or toward L2 lear ning itself.Chapter21. List at least five possible motivations for learning a second

44、language at anolder age. P10The motivati on may arise from a variety of con diti ons, in clud ing the followi ng:Invasion or conquest of one s country by speakers of another Ianguage; A n eed or desire to con tact speakers of other Ian guages in econo mic or other specific doma ins;Immigration to a

45、country where use of a Ianguage other than ones L1 is required;Adoption of religious beliefs and practices which invoIve use of another Ian guage;A need or desire to pursue educational experiences where access requires proficie ncy in ano ther Ian guage;A desire for occupational or social advancemen

46、t which is furthered by kno wledge of ano ther Ian guage;An interest in knowing more about peoples of other cultures and having access to their tech no logies or literatures.2. What are the two main factors that influence the language learning? P13(1) The role of n atural ability: Huma ns are born w

47、ith a n atural ability or inn ate capacity to lear n Ian guage.(2) The role of social experienee: Not all of L1 acquisition can be attributed to inn ate ability, for Ian guage-specific lear ning also plays a crucial role. Eve n if the uni versal properties of Ian guage are preprogrammed in childre n

48、, they must lear n all of those features which dist in guish their L1 from all other possible huma n Ian guages. Childre n will n ever acquire such Ian guage-specific kno wledge uni ess that Ian guage is used with them and aro und them, and they will lear n to use only the Ianguage(s) used around th

49、em, no matter what their linguistic heritage. American-born children of Korean or Greek ancestry will never learn the Ian guage of their gra ndpare nts if only En glish surro unds them, for in sta nee, and they will find their an cestral la nguage just as hard to lear n as any other En glish speaker

50、s do if they attempt to lear n it as an adult. Appropriate social experie nee, in clud ing L1 in put and in teracti on, is thus a n ecessary con diti on for acquisiti on.3. What is the initial state of language development for L1 and L2 respectively?P17-18The in itial state of L1 lear ning is compos

51、ed solely of an inn ate capacity for Ian guage acquisiti on which may or may not continue to be available for L2, or may be available only in some limited ways. The in itial state for L2 lear ning, on the other hand, has resources of L1 compete nee, world kno wledge, and established skills for in te

52、ractio n, which can be both an asset and an impedime nt.4. How does intermediate states process? P18-佃The cross-1 in guistic in flue nee, or tran sfer of prior kno wledge from L1 to L2, is one of the processes that is invo Ived in in terla nguage developme nt. Two major types of tran sfer which occu

53、r are: (1) positive tran sfer, whe n an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 uttera nee and that use is appropriate or“ coriand (2) n egative tran sfer (or in terfere nee), whe n an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 uttera nee and tlat use is in appropriate and con sidered an“ error ”.5. What i

54、s a necessary condition for language learning (L1 or L2)? P20Lan guage in put to the lear ner is absolutely n ecessary for either L1 or L2 lear ning to take place. Childre n additi on ally require in teractio n with other people for L1 lear ning to occur. It is possible for some in dividuals to reac

55、h a fairly high level of proficie ncy in L2 eve n if they have in put only from such gen erally non-reciprocal sources as radio, televisio n, or writte n text.6. What is a facilitating condition for language learning? P20While L1 lear ning by childre n occurs without in structi on, and while the rat

56、e of L1 developme nt is not sig ni fica ntly in flue need by correcti on of immature forms or by degree of motivati on to speak, both rate and ultimate level of developme nt in L2 can be facilitated or in habited by many social and in dividual factors, such as (1) feedback, including correction of L

57、2 learners errors; (2) aptitude, including memory capacity and analytic ability; (3) motivation, or need and desire to lear n; (4) in structi on, or explicit teach ing in school sett in gs.7. Give at least 2 reasons that many scientists believe in some innate capacityfor language. P21-24The no tio n

58、 that inn ate lin guistic kno wledge must un derlie (指原贝卩、理由构成某学说的基础，潜在于.之下)language acquisition was prominently espoused(采纟纳或支持事业理念 )by Noam Chomsky. This view has been supported byargume nts such as the followi ng:(1) Children s knowledge of Ianguage goes beyond what could be learned fromthe in pu

59、t they receive: Childre n ofte n hear in complete or un grammaticaluttera nces along with grammatical in put, and yet they are somehow able tofilter the Ian guage they hear so that the un grammatical in put is notin corporated in to their L1 system. Further, childre n are commo nly recipie ntsof simplified in put from adults, which does not in elude data