LEADERSHIP IN ORGANIZATIONS

1、leadership in organizations prepared by: gregar donaven e. valdehueza, mba lourdes college instructor learning objectives ndefine leadership and explain its importance for organizations. nidentify personal characteristics associated with effective leaders. nexplain the five sources of power and how

2、each causes different subordinate behavior. ndescribe the different theories of leadership. ndescribe the different leadership styles. nexplain innovative approaches to leadership in the new workplace. the nature of leadership leadership occurs among people, involves the use of influence, and is use

3、d to attain goals. leadership: the ability to influence people toward the attainment of goals. leadership versus management leaders have followers ncharismatic, transformational style npeople focus nseek risk na surprising number of these leaders had some form of handicap in their lives which they h

4、ad to overcome. some had traumatic childhoods, some had problems such as dyslexia, others were shorter than average. this perhaps taught them the independence of mind that is needed to go out on a limb and not worry about what others are thinking about you. managers have subordinates nauthoritarian,

5、 transactional style nwork focus nseek comfort nan interesting research finding about managers is that they tend to come from stable home backgrounds and led relatively normal and comfortable lives. this leads them to be relatively risk-averse and they will seek to avoid conflict where possible. in

6、terms of people, they generally like to run a happy ship. subjectleadermanager essencechangestability focusleading peoplemanaging work havefollowerssubordinates horizonlong-termshort-term seeksvisionobjectives approachsets direction plans detail decisionfacilitatesmakes powerpersonal charismaformal

7、authority appeal tohearthead energypassioncontrol dynamicproactivereactive persuasionselltell characteristics of leader and manager subjectleadermanager styletransformationaltransactional exchangeexcitement for workmoney for work likesstrivingaction wantsachievementresults risktakesminimizes rulesbr

8、eaksmakes conflictusesavoids directionnew roadsexisting roads truthseeksestablishes concernwhat is rightbeing right creditgivestakes blametakesblames characteristics of leader and manager power: the potential ability to influence others behavior. position power nlegitimate power npower that stems fr

9、om a formal management position in an organization and the authority granted to it. nreward power npower that results from the authority to bestow rewards on other people. ncoercive power npower that stems from the authority to punish or recommend punishment. personal power nexpert power npower that

10、 stems from special knowledge of or skill in the tasks performed by subordinates. nreferent power npower that results from characteristics that command subordinates identification with, respect and admiration for, and desire to emulate the leader. theories of leadership great man theory (1) nassumpt

11、ions nleaders are born and not made. ngreat leaders will arise when there is a great need. ndescription nthe idea of the great man also strayed into the mythic domain, with notions that in times of need, a great man would arise, almost by magic. this was easy to verify, by pointing to people such as

12、 eisenhower and churchill, let alone those further back along the timeline, even to jesus, moses, mohammed and the buddah. ndiscussion ngender issues were not on the table when the great man theory was proposed. most leaders were male and the thought of a great woman was generally in areas other tha

13、n leadership. most researchers were also male, and concerns about androcentric bias were a long way from being realized. trait theory (2) nassumptions npeople are born with inherited traits. nsome traits are particularly suited to leadership. npeople who make good leaders have the right (or sufficie

14、nt) combination of traits. ndescription nstogdill (1974) identified the following traits and skills as critical to leaders. traitsskills adaptable to situations alert to social environment ambitious and achievement-orientated assertive cooperative decisive dependable dominant (desire to influence ot

15、hers) energetic (high activity level) persistent self-confident tolerant of stress willing to assume responsibility clever (intelligent) conceptually skilled creative diplomatic and tactful fluent in speaking knowledgeable about group task organized (administrative ability) persuasive socially skill

16、ed nmccall and lombardo (1983) researched both success and failure identified four primary traits by which leaders could succeed or derail: nemotional stability and composure nadmitting error ngood interpersonal skills nintellectual breadth ndiscussion nthere have been many different studies of lead

17、ership traits and they agree only in the general saintly qualities needed to be a leader. nfor a long period, inherited traits were sidelined as learned and situational factors were considered to be far more realistic as reasons for people acquiring leadership positions. nparadoxically, the research

18、 into twins who were separated at birth along with new sciences such as behavioral genetics have shown that far more is inherited than was previously supposed. perhaps one day they will find a leadership gene. behavioral theories (3) nassumptions nleaders can be made, rather than are born. nsuccessf

19、ul leadership is based in definable, learnable behavior. ndescription nbehavioral theories of leadership do not seek inborn traits or capabilities. rather, they look at what leaders actually do. nif success can be defined in terms of describable actions, then it should be relatively easy for other p

20、eople to act in the same way. this is easier to teach and learn than to adopt the more ephemeral traits or capabilities. ndiscussion na behavioral theory is relatively easy to develop, as you simply assess both leadership success and the actions of leaders. with a large enough study, you can then co

21、rrelate statistically significant behaviors with success. you can also identify behaviors which contribute to failure, thus adding a second layer of understanding. participative leadership (4) assumptions ninvolvement in decision-making improves the understanding of the issues involved by those who

22、must carry out the decisions. npeople are more committed to actions where they have involved in the relevant decision-making. npeople are less competitive and more collaborative when they are working on joint goals. nwhen people make decisions together, the social commitment to one another is greate

23、r and thus increases their commitment to the decision. nseveral people deciding together make better decisions than one person alone. style na participative leader, rather than taking autocratic decisions, seeks to involve other people in the process, possibly including subordinates, peers, superior

24、s and other stakeholders. autocratic decision by leader leader proposes decision, listens to feedback, then decides team proposes decision, leader has final decision joint decision with team as equals full delegation of decision to team nthe level of participation may also depend on the type of deci

25、sion being made. decisions on how to implement goals may be highly participative, whilst decisions during subordinate performance evaluations are more likely to be taken by the manager. discussion nthere are many potential benefits of participative leadership, as indicated in the assumptions, above.

26、 nthis approach is also known as consultation, empowerment, joint decision-making, democratic leadership, management by objective (mbo) and power-sharing. nparticipative leadership can be a sham when managers ask for opinions and then ignore them. this is likely to lead to cynicism and feelings of b

27、etrayal. situational leadership (5) nassumptions nthe best action of the leader depends on a range of situational factors. nstyle nwhen a decision is needed, an effective leader does not just fall into a single preferred style, such as using transactional or transformational methods. nyukl (1989) se

28、eks to combine other approaches and identifies six variables: nsubordinate effort: the motivation and actual effort expended. nsubordinate ability and role clarity: followers knowing what to do and how to do it. norganization of the work: the structure of the work and utilization of resources. ncoop

29、eration and cohesiveness: of the group in working together. nresources and support: the availability of tools, materials, people, etc. nexternal coordination: the need to collaborate with other groups. ndiscussion ntannenbaum and schmidt (1958) identified three forces that led to the leaders action:

30、 the forces in the situation, the forces in then follower and also forces in the leader. this recognizes that the leaders style is highly variable. nmaier (1963) noted that leaders not only consider the likelihood of a follower accepting a suggestion, but also the overall importance of getting thing

31、s done. thus in critical situations, a leader is more likely to be directive in style simply because of the implications of failure. contingency theories (6) nassumptions nthe leaders ability to lead is contingent (synonym: dependent) upon various situational factors, including the leaders preferred

32、 style, the capabilities and behaviors of followers and also various other situational factors. ndescription ncontingency theories are a class of behavioral theory that contend that there is no one best way of leading and that a leadership style that is effective in some situations may not be succes

33、sful in others. nan effect of this is that leaders who are very effective at one place and time may become unsuccessful either when transplanted to another situation or when the factors around them change. ndiscussion ncontingency theory is similar to situational theory in that there is an assumptio

34、n of no simple one right way. the main difference is that situational theory tends to focus more on the behaviors that the leader should adopt, given situational factors (often about follower behavior), whereas contingency theory takes a broader view that includes contingent factors about leader cap

35、ability and other variables within the situation. transactional (management) leadership (7) nassumptions npeople are motivated by reward and punishment. nsocial systems work best with a clear chain of command. nwhen people have agreed to do a job, a part of the deal is that they cede (yield or grant

36、) all authority to their manager. nthe prime purpose of a subordinate is to do what their manager tells them to do. nstyle nthe transactional leader works through creating clear structures whereby it is clear what is required of their subordinates, and the rewards that they get for following orders.

37、 punishments are not always mentioned, but they are also well-understood and formal systems of discipline are usually in place. nwhen the transactional leader allocates work to a subordinate, they are considered to be fully responsible for it, whether or not they have the resources or capability to

38、carry it out. when things go wrong, then the subordinate is considered to be personally at fault, and is punished for their failure (just as they are rewarded for succeeding). nthe transactional leader often uses management by exception, working on the principle that if something is operating to def

39、ined (and hence expected) performance then it does not need attention. exceptions to expectation require praise and reward for exceeding expectation, whilst some kind of corrective action is applied for performance below expectation. ndiscussion ntransactional leadership is based in contingency, in

40、that reward or punishment is contingent upon performance. nthe main limitation is the assumption of rational man, a person who is largely motivated by money and simple reward, and hence whose behavior is predictable. the underlying psychology is behaviorism, including the classical conditioning of p

41、avlov and skinners operant conditioning. nin practice, there is sufficient truth in behaviorism to sustain transactional approaches. this is reinforced by the supply- and-demand situation of much employment, coupled with the effects of deeper needs, as in maslows hierarchy. when the demand for a ski

42、ll outstrips (surpass) the supply, then transactional leadership often is insufficient, and other approaches are more effective. transformational (relationship) leadership (8) nassumptions npeople will follow a person who inspires them. na person with vision and passion can achieve great things. nth

43、e way to get things done is by injecting enthusiasm and energy. nstyle nthey put passion and energy into everything. they care about you and want you to succeed. developing the vision ntransformational leadership starts with the development of a vision, a view of the future that will excite and conv

44、ert potential followers. selling the vision nin order to create followers, the transformational leader has to be very careful in creating trust, and their personal integrity is a critical part of the package that they are selling. in effect, they are selling themselves as well as the vision. finding

45、 the way forwards nsome transformational leaders know the way, and simply want others to follow them. others do not have a ready strategy, but will happily lead the exploration of possible routes to the promised land. nthe route forwards may not be obvious and may not be plotted in details, but with

46、 a clear vision, the direction will always be known. leading the charge ntransformational leaders are always visible and will stand up to be counted rather than hide behind their troops. none of the methods the transformational leader uses to sustain motivation is in the use of ceremonies, rituals a

47、nd other cultural symbolism. ndiscussion nwhilst the transformational leader seeks overtly to transform the organization, there is also a tacit promise to followers that they also will be transformed in some way, perhaps to be more like this amazing leader. in some respects, then, the followers are

48、the product of the transformation. ntransformational leaders are often charismatic, but are not as narcissistic as pure charismatic leaders, who succeed through a belief in themselves rather than a belief in others. none of the traps of transformational leadership is that passion and confidence can

49、easily be mistaken for truth and reality. whilst it is true that great things have been achieved through enthusiastic leadership, it is also true that many passionate people have led the charge right over the cliff and into a bottomless chasm. just because someone believes they are right, it does no

50、t mean they are right. nparadoxically, the energy that gets people going can also cause them to give up. transformational leaders often have large amounts of enthusiasm which, if relentlessly applied, can wear out their followers. ntransformational leaders also tend to see the big picture, but not t

51、he details, where the devil often lurks. if they do not have people to take care of this level of information, then they are usually doomed to fail. nfinally, transformational leaders, by definition, seek to transform. when the organization does not need transforming and people are happy as they are

52、, then such a leader will be frustrated. empowerment nthe giving or delegation of power; authority () nempowerment is the process of enabling or authorizing an individual to think, behave, take action, and control work and decision making in autonomous ways. () empowering employees works because tot

53、al power in the organization seems to increase. everyone has to say and hence contributes more to organizational goals. leadership styles autocratic nmanager seeks to make as many decisions as possible nmanager seeks to have the most authority and control in decision-making nmanager seeks to retain

54、responsibility rather than utilize complete delegation nconsultation with other colleagues is minimal and decision-making becomes a solitary (performed alone) process nmanagers are less concerned with investing their own leadership development, and prefer to simply work on the task at hand. democrat

55、ic nmanager seeks consultation on all major issues and decisions. nmanager effectively delegate tasks to subordinates and give them full control and responsibility for those tasks. nmanager welcomes feedback on the results of initiatives and the work environment. nmanager encourages others to become

56、 leaders and be involved in leadership development. bureaucratic nleaders expect employees to display a formal, business-like attitude in the workplace and between each other. nmanagers gain instant authority with their position, because rules demand that employees pay them certain privileges, such

57、as being able to sign off on all major decisions. as a result, leaders suffer from position power. leadership development becomes pointless, because only titles and roles provide any real control or power. nemployees are rewarded for their ability to adhere to the rules and follow procedure perfectl

58、y. nbureaucratic systems usually gradually develop over a long period of time, and hence are more commonly found in large works effectively with others in a group. level 1: highly capable individual productive contributor; offers talent, knowledge, skills, and good work habits as an individual emplo

59、yee. level 3: competent manager sets plans and organizes people for the efficient and effective pursuit of objectives. level 4: the effective executive builds widespread commitment to a clear and compelling vision; stimulates people to high performance. level 5: the level 5 leader builds an enduring

60、 great organization through a combination of personal humility and professional resolve. the level 5 leadership hierarchy leading the new workplace four areas of particular interest for leadership in the new workplace are a new concept referred to as: nlevel 5 leadership nwomens ways of leading nvir