电大西方经济学第三次业小抄参考

1、一、对消费受许多因素的影响，其中最重要的影响因素是收入，一般把消费与收入之间的数量关系称为消费函数，消费理论主要就是通过对消费函数的研究，分析消费与收入之间的变动关系。消费理论主要有四种收入理论： 1、（一）、凯恩斯的绝对收入理论。凯恩斯将消费函数表达为：cf（y），并将此式改写为cby，c代表消费；y代表收入。表明如果其他条件不变，则消费c随收入y增加而增加，随收入y减少而减少。他强调实际消费支出是实际收入的稳定函数，这里所说的实际收入是指现期、绝对、实际的收入水平，即本期收入、收入的绝对水平和按货币购买力计算的收入。 平均消费倾向:消费占收入的比率； apcc/y 边际消费倾向:消费随着收

2、入的增加而增加，新增加的消费占新增加收入的比率；mpc= c /y apc和mpc都随着收入的增加而减小； mpc介于0和1之间，并且apcmpc （二）、消费函数和储蓄函数的关系，是由消费和储蓄的关系决定的。一般认为收入为消费和储蓄之和，即y=c+s，当国民收入y一定时c增加则s减少，反之c减少则s增加。边际储蓄倾向 mps=s/y平均储蓄倾向 aps=s/y（三）平均消费倾向apc是 指消费占收讫的比例。公式：apc=c/y; 边际消费倾向mpc是指增加的消费在增加的收入中所占的比例。公式：mpc=c/y。 2、杜森贝的相对收入理论。杜森贝提出消费并不取决于现期绝对收入水平，而是取决于相对

3、收入水平。 3、莫迪利安尼的生命周期理论。莫迪利安尼提出消费不取决于现期收入，而取决于一生的收入和财产收入，其消费函数公式为：cawrbyl。4、弗里德曼的持久收入理论。弗里德曼认为居民消费不取决于现期收入的绝对水平，也不取决于现期收入和以前最高收入的关系，而是取决于居民的持久收入，由此得出的结论是，人们的收入可以分为两部分，一部分是暂时收入，一部分是持久收入，只有持久收入才影响人们的消费，即消费是持久收入的稳定函数。二、促进消费需求的对策1.要千方百计增加居民收，提高居民消费能力第一，要制定促进城镇居民就业和收入增长的长期政策。第二，要增加农民收入，减轻农民负担。2.要缩小居民收入差距，扩大

4、整体需求规模第一，要完善转移支付制度。第二，要改革经济管制制度，通过引入竞争减少行业间收入差距。第三，要建立对贫困家庭的社会救助体系。第四，要加快西部开发步伐和振兴东北的进程。3.要建立健全社会保障制度，改善支出预期4.要改善供给结构，促进消费结构升级 第一，要调整产业结构。第二，要树立现代营销理念，将高效率地满足消费者需求作为企业管理的出发点和归宿。第三，要运用高科技改造传统产业，发展新产业。5.要改善消费环境，便利居民消费，推动消费结构升级第一，要完善消费政策，鼓励合理消费。第二，要加强消费者权益保护力度。第三，要改善农村消费环境和设施。6. 要加强资本市场管理与建设winger tuiv

5、asa-sheck, who scored two tries in the kiwis 20-18 semi-final win over england, has been passed fit after a lower-leg injury, while slater has been named at full-back but is still recovering from a knee injury aggravated against usa.both sides boast 100% records heading into the encounter but austra

6、lia have not conceded a try since josh charnleys effort in their first pool match against england on the opening day.aussie winger jarryd hayne is the competitions top try scorer with nine, closely followed by tuivasa-sheck with eight.but it is recently named rugby league international federation pl

7、ayer of the year sonny bill williams who has attracted the most interest in the tournament so far.the kiwi - with a tournament high 17 offloads - has the chance of becoming the first player to win the world cup in both rugby league and rugby union after triumphing with the all blacks in 2011.id give

8、 every award back in a heartbeat just to get across the line this weekend, said williams.the (lack of) air up there watch mcayman islands-based webb, the head of fifas anti-racism taskforce, is in london for the football associations 150th anniversary celebrations and will attend citys premier leagu

9、e match at chelsea on sunday.i am going to be at the match tomorrow and i have asked to meet yaya toure, he told bbc sport.for me its about how he felt and i would like to speak to him first to find out what his experience was.uefa hasopened disciplinary proceedings against cskafor the racist behavi

10、our of their fans duringcitys 2-1 win.michel platini, president of european footballs governing body, has also ordered an immediate investigation into the referees actions.cska said they were surprised and disappointed by toures complaint. in a statement the russian side added: we found no racist in

11、sults from fans of cska. baumgartner the disappointing news: mission aborted.the supersonic descent could happen as early as sunda.the weather plays an important role in this mission. starting at the ground, conditions have to be very calm - winds less than 2 mph, with no precipitation or humidity a

12、nd limited cloud cover. the balloon, with capsule attached, will move through the lower level of the atmosphere (the troposphere) where our day-to-day weather lives. it will climb higher than the tip of mount everest (5.5 miles/8.85 kilometers), drifting even higher than the cruising altitude of com

13、mercial airliners (5.6 miles/9.17 kilometers) and into the stratosphere. as he crosses the boundary layer (called the tropopause),e can expect a lot of turbulence.the balloon will slowly drift to the edge of space at 120,000 feet ( then, i would assume, he will slowly step out onto something resembl

14、ing an olympic diving platform.they blew it in 2008 when they got caught cold in the final and they will not make the same mistake against the kiwis in manchester.five years ago they cruised through to the final and so far history has repeated itself here - the last try they conceded was scored by e

15、nglands josh charnley in the opening game of the tournament.that could be classed as a weakness, a team under-cooked - but i have been impressed by the kangaroos focus in their games since then.they have been concentrating on the sort of stuff that wins you tough, even contests - strong defence, esp

16、ecially on their own goal-line, completing sets and a good kick-chase. theyve been great at all the unglamorous stuff that often goes unnoticed in the stands but not by your team-mates.it is as though their entire tournament has been preparation for the final.in johnathan thurston, cooper cronk, cameron smith and either billy slater or greg inglis at full-back they have a spine that is unmatched in rugby league. they have played in so many high-pressure games - a priceless asset going into saturday.the